Emerging Biosensing Technologies for the Diagnostics of Viral Infectious Diseases

Abstract

Despite these viruses emerging in different geographic areas, they have become an undeniable threat to worldwide public health and economic burden. The coronaviruses (CoVs) include severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV), and especially the most recent SARS-CoV variant, SARS-CoV-2, which has caused the virulent, airborne, and infectious coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that continues to affect millions of people, resulting in the ongoing pandemic outbreak. [3,[6][7][8][9][10] Considering that most of the described viral-based community spread infections occur through aerosols and fomites [11] transmitted by presymptomatic and asymptomatic people, [12] diagnostic methods for the early detection with high accuracy and on-site capability are crucial and would further aid the current needs of the epidemic outbreak. [13][14][15] In clinical methodology, the emerging mutations and the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 isolates are determined by DNA sequencing of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) samples. [6,16] These BALF samples come in the form of nasopharyngeal swabs or sputum samples, and the viral nucleic acid detection is performed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain Several viral infectious diseases appear limitless since the beginning of the 21 st century, expanding into pandemic lengths. Thus, there are extensive efforts to provide more efficient means of diagnosis, a better understanding of acquired immunity, and improved monitoring of inflammatory biomarkers, as these are all crucial for controlling the spread of infection while aiding in vaccine development and improving patient outcomes. In this regard, various biosensors have been developed recently to streamline pathogen and immune response detection by addressing the limitations of traditional methods, including isothermal amplification-based systems and lateral flow assays. This review explores state-of-the-art biosensors for detecting viral pathogens, serological assays, and inflammatory biomarkers from the material perspective, by discussing their advantages, limitations, and further potential regarding their analytical performance, clinical utility, and point-ofcare adaptability. Additionally, next-generation biosensing technologies that offer better sensitivity and selectivity, and easy handling for end-users are highlighted. An emerging example of these next-generation biosensors are those powered by novel synthetic biology tools, such as clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) with CRISPR-associated proteins (Cas), in combination with integrated point-of-care devices. Lastly, the current challenges are discussed and a roadmap for furthering these advanced biosensing technologies to manage future pandemics is provided.

Detection Methods for Foodborne Viruses: Current State-of-Art and Future Perspectives

“…(5) The methods for low and middle-income countries or resource-limited regions should be developed by combination with mini-sized, automated, and low-cost devices. (6) The integration of established methods with the emerging technologies, such as blockchain (BC), Internet of Things (IoT), big data, cloud computing, etc., should be realized, which would enable the detection to be "smarter" and more user-friendly. (7) On one hand, a range of laboratory-based research is not put into practice; hence the "translational" process should be stressed.…”

“…Foodborne viruses, as infectious pathogens, are mainly divided into three categories according to the type of illness: viruses causing gastroenteritis (e.g., norovirus, rotavirus, enteric adenovirus, Norwalk-like viruses, and typical caliciviruses), fecal–orally transmitted hepatitis viruses (hepatitis A virus and hepatitis E virus), and viruses that replicate in the human intestine but cause other diseases (e.g., enteroviruses) . Noroviruses (NoV), rotaviruses, and hepatitis A viruses (HAV) are the priority hazards . Norovirus, also known as Norwalk virus, is the leading agent of human nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis, which is highly infectious and easily transmits through the feces of patients or carriers.…”

“…3 Noroviruses (NoV), rotaviruses, and hepatitis A viruses (HAV) are the priority hazards. 6 Norovirus, also known as Norwalk virus, is the leading agent of human nonbacterial acute gastroenteritis, which is highly infectious and easily transmits through the feces of patients or carriers. Human beings get infected by consuming virus-contaminated water or food, such as undercooked shellfish products.…”

Smartphone-Based Multiplexed Biosensing Tools for Health Monitoring

“…Smart biosensors for multiple-pathogen detection are often designed for personalized medicine and reduce the need for health care professionals for diagnosis. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is currently the gold standard method on the market for active pathogen detection [ 113 ]. Though there are multiplexed PCR systems, they require specialized equipment and attention during handling.…”

Partitioning-Induced Isolation of Analyte and Analysis via Multiscaled Aqueous Two-Phase System

“…Since the outbreak of COVID-19, an urgent need for rapid and point-of-care diagnostic methods has emerged. − Isolating target biomolecules is crucial in many diagnostic-related applications, including fluorescence-based analysis, , analyte extraction, , and antibody purification . Ideal isolating methods should be cheap, simple, and applicable in low-resource settings .…”