Embedded 3D Printing of Ultrasound‐Compatible Arterial Phantoms with Biomimetic Elasticity

Abstract

Here, a class of ink materials and an embedded 3D printing strategy for the fabrication of macroscale elastic tissue‐mimetic constructs are presented. Novel inks composed of 10 wt% glycidyl methacrylated poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVAGMA) with different degrees of substitution (DOS) and 4 wt% cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) (PVAGMA(DOS)/CNC) with strong shear‐thinning property are developed. By controlling the DOS of PVAGMA, hydrogels with desired mechanical stiffness mimicking that of healthy and diseased artery are designed to construct vascular phantoms. Cyclic tensile tests and in vitro hemodynamic study performed on phantoms demonstrate their excellent mechanical stability and low hysteresis. The burst pressure is found to be about 273 mmHg for PVAGMA2/CNC and 102 mmHg for PVAGMA4/CNC and the printed vascular phantoms are able to withstand 863K cycles over 10 days. Further, their suitability for ultrasonic imaging is demonstrated. Via B‐mode imaging, it is found that the vessel strains under a pulsatile flow are 11.7 ± 1.0% and 6.5 ± 1.5% for PVAGMA2/CNC and PVAGMA4/CNC vessels, respectively, perfectly matching the behaviors of healthy and atherosclerotic arteries. It exemplifies that the ink materials and printing strategy can have broad applications in biomedical research, especially for the fabrication of complex elastic tissue phantoms.

Retinol-Loaded Poly(vinyl alcohol)-Based Hydrogels as Suitable Biomaterials with Antimicrobial Properties for the Proliferation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells

“…This material has great potential due to its low toxicity, high water absorption, good mechanical properties (elastic modulus and mechanical strength), biocompatibility, and good physicochemical properties [ 4 , 5 ]. For instance, PVA hydrogel was potentially useful in cartilage tissue substitutes [ 6 ], heart valves [ 7 ], arterial phantoms [ 8 ], corneal implants [ 9 ], electroskins, actuators, supercapacitors, and fuel cells [ 10 , 11 ]. Due to the flexible crosslinking ability, PVA hydrogel was fabricated with different biomolecules and polymers, such as carboxyl methyl cellulose [ 12 ], gelatin, chitosan [ 13 ], graphene oxide [ 14 ], MXene [ 11 ], lignin-silver hybrid nanoparticles [ 15 ], agar [ 16 ], and laponite [ 17 ].…”

Understanding Atherosclerosis Pathophysiology: Can Additive Manufacturing Be Helpful?

“…Therefore, arterial phantoms with tunable anatomical and biomechanical properties are highly demanded experimental tools for developing and validating new instruments, imaging systems, and protocols. Moreover, phantoms generated from a patient’s medical imaging data sets can serve as personalized models for diagnostic and treatment planning purposes, enabling personalized medicine [ 57 ].…”

“…Finally, Wu et al (2022) [ 57 ] developed a novel ink for micro-extrusion printing realistic arterial phantoms. The ink was composed of poly(vinyl alcohol glycidyl methacrylate) (PVAGMA) and cellulose nanocrystal (CNC).…”

“…The phantoms revealed excellent stability and durability. Additionally, the burst pressure of materials was comparable to the native carotid artery, meaning that these materials could be good candidates to fabricate arterial vessels [ 57 ]. Although the authors have created a biomaterial to be successfully applied in producing arterial phantoms, atherosclerosis disease was not approached in this work, and atherosclerotic tissue components were not mimicked.…”

Energy‐Dissipative Hydrogels: A Promising Material for Tissue Regeneration†

“…The resultant hydrogels remained their structural integrity in continuous pulsatile flow for 10 d and could withstand burst pressure comparable to that of the native carotid artery. [ 111 ] A bio‐printed multilayered hydrogel tube composed of Gelatin Methacryloyl (GelMA), alginate, and eight‐arm PEG acrylate with tripentaerythritol core (PEGOA), could be used to fabricate various types of tubular tissues, such as blood vessels, which showed good performance in mechanical strength and stability, and promoted cell growth and proliferation. [ 112 ]…”