Electrophysiological evaluation of the effect of peptide toxins on voltage-gated ion channels: a scoping review on theoretical and methodological aspects with focus on the Central and South American experience

Biological and Immunological Activities of Brazilian Wasp Venoms: Implications for Allergy and Ion-Channel Modulation

“…These channels regulate membrane potential and electrical signaling, and their modulation can profoundly alter cellular excitability [9,63]. Venom peptides interact with these channels through multiple mechanisms, including pore blockade, gating modification, and alterations in activation or inactivation kinetics [64]. Such interactions may result in prolonged depolarization, impaired repolarization, or inhibition of action potential generation.…”

“…Experimental studies involving venom-derived toxins have demonstrated that some molecules function as gating modifiers, altering the voltage dependence of Ca 2+ channels and consequently affecting neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission [57,64]. These effects are closely linked to both neurotoxic symptoms and immune activation, reinforcing the interplay between electrophysiological and immunological mechanisms.…”

“…Experimental studies employing electrophysiological approaches, particularly patch-clamp techniques, have demonstrated that venom peptides can either enhance or suppress ion currents depending on their structural properties and binding sites [65]. Importantly, these effects are not restricted to neurons, as ion channels also participate in immune-cell activation and signaling, thereby linking electrophysiological modulation to immunological outcomes [57,64]. Venom components interact with neuronal membranes and ion channels, leading to functional disturbances in sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), and calcium (Ca 2+ ) channels.…”

Biological and Immunological Activities of Brazilian Wasp Venoms: Implications for Allergy and Ion-Channel Modulation

“…These channels regulate membrane potential and electrical signaling, and their modulation can profoundly alter cellular excitability [9,63]. Venom peptides interact with these channels through multiple mechanisms, including pore blockade, gating modification, and alterations in activation or inactivation kinetics [64]. Such interactions may result in prolonged depolarization, impaired repolarization, or inhibition of action potential generation.…”

“…Experimental studies involving venom-derived toxins have demonstrated that some molecules function as gating modifiers, altering the voltage dependence of Ca 2+ channels and consequently affecting neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission [57,64]. These effects are closely linked to both neurotoxic symptoms and immune activation, reinforcing the interplay between electrophysiological and immunological mechanisms.…”

“…Experimental studies employing electrophysiological approaches, particularly patch-clamp techniques, have demonstrated that venom peptides can either enhance or suppress ion currents depending on their structural properties and binding sites [65]. Importantly, these effects are not restricted to neurons, as ion channels also participate in immune-cell activation and signaling, thereby linking electrophysiological modulation to immunological outcomes [57,64]. Venom components interact with neuronal membranes and ion channels, leading to functional disturbances in sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), and calcium (Ca 2+ ) channels.…”

Properties and Pharmacology of Scorpion Toxins and Their Biotechnological Potential in Agriculture and Medicine

“…Historically, scorpion toxins have been classified based on their interactions with ion channels, particularly voltage-gated sodium (Na v ), potassium (K v ), calcium (Ca v ), and chloride (ClC) channels, as a reflection of the central roles of these channels in neurophysiology and venom pathology, and also based on their primary amino acid sequences [ 7 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. While this general approach is still applied today, the advent of high-throughput sequencing, structural biology techniques, and, more recently, artificial intelligence [ 62 ] has greatly expanded our understanding of toxin diversity such that scorpion toxins can now be classified based not only on their primary sequences, but also on their three-dimensional folding patterns and the conservation of key functional residues [ 54 ].…”

“…Numerous transcriptomic and proteomic studies over the last 20 years [11,12,13,14,15,16,17] have revealed the complexity of scorpion venoms, particularly with regard to their peptide content [10,18,19,20]. These peptides have been extensively studied because of their structural diversity, their wide-range of pharmacological effects, and their potential to serve as pharmacological tools, such as ion channel [21,22,23,24] and G-protein-coupled receptor [25,26] modulators, as well as inhibitors of enzymatic activity, including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34] and matrix metalloproteinases [35]. Scorpion peptides have also been investigated as lead compounds for the development of novel therapeutic agents [10,36,37,38,39,40] to treat conditions such as bacterial [41,42,43,44,45] and viral [46,47] infections, cancer [47,48,49,50,51,52], pain [53,54], inflammation [39,55], diabetes [56] and hypertension [25,57,58].…”

Biological and Immunological Activities of Brazilian Wasp Venoms: Implications for Allergy and Ion-Channel Modulation

“…These channels regulate membrane potential and electrical signaling, and their modulation can profoundly alter cellular excitability [9,63]. Venom peptides interact with these channels through multiple mechanisms, including pore blockade, gating modification, and alterations in activation or inactivation kinetics [64]. Such interactions may result in prolonged depolarization, impaired repolarization, or inhibition of action potential generation.…”

“…Experimental studies involving venom-derived toxins have demonstrated that some molecules function as gating modifiers, altering the voltage dependence of Ca 2+ channels and consequently affecting neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission [57,64]. These effects are closely linked to both neurotoxic symptoms and immune activation, reinforcing the interplay between electrophysiological and immunological mechanisms.…”

“…Experimental studies employing electrophysiological approaches, particularly patch-clamp techniques, have demonstrated that venom peptides can either enhance or suppress ion currents depending on their structural properties and binding sites [65]. Importantly, these effects are not restricted to neurons, as ion channels also participate in immune-cell activation and signaling, thereby linking electrophysiological modulation to immunological outcomes [57,64]. Venom components interact with neuronal membranes and ion channels, leading to functional disturbances in sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), and calcium (Ca 2+ ) channels.…”

Properties and Pharmacology of Scorpion Toxins and Their Biotechnological Potential in Agriculture and Medicine

“…Historically, scorpion toxins have been classified based on their interactions with ion channels, particularly voltage-gated sodium (Na v ), potassium (K v ), calcium (Ca v ), and chloride (ClC) channels, as a reflection of the central roles of these channels in neurophysiology and venom pathology, and also based on their primary amino acid sequences [ 7 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. While this general approach is still applied today, the advent of high-throughput sequencing, structural biology techniques, and, more recently, artificial intelligence [ 62 ] has greatly expanded our understanding of toxin diversity such that scorpion toxins can now be classified based not only on their primary sequences, but also on their three-dimensional folding patterns and the conservation of key functional residues [ 54 ].…”

“…Numerous transcriptomic and proteomic studies over the last 20 years [11,12,13,14,15,16,17] have revealed the complexity of scorpion venoms, particularly with regard to their peptide content [10,18,19,20]. These peptides have been extensively studied because of their structural diversity, their wide-range of pharmacological effects, and their potential to serve as pharmacological tools, such as ion channel [21,22,23,24] and G-protein-coupled receptor [25,26] modulators, as well as inhibitors of enzymatic activity, including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34] and matrix metalloproteinases [35]. Scorpion peptides have also been investigated as lead compounds for the development of novel therapeutic agents [10,36,37,38,39,40] to treat conditions such as bacterial [41,42,43,44,45] and viral [46,47] infections, cancer [47,48,49,50,51,52], pain [53,54], inflammation [39,55], diabetes [56] and hypertension [25,57,58].…”

Biological and Immunological Activities of Brazilian Wasp Venoms: Implications for Allergy and Ion-Channel Modulation

“…These channels regulate membrane potential and electrical signaling, and their modulation can profoundly alter cellular excitability [9,63]. Venom peptides interact with these channels through multiple mechanisms, including pore blockade, gating modification, and alterations in activation or inactivation kinetics [64]. Such interactions may result in prolonged depolarization, impaired repolarization, or inhibition of action potential generation.…”

“…Experimental studies involving venom-derived toxins have demonstrated that some molecules function as gating modifiers, altering the voltage dependence of Ca 2+ channels and consequently affecting neuronal excitability and synaptic transmission [57,64]. These effects are closely linked to both neurotoxic symptoms and immune activation, reinforcing the interplay between electrophysiological and immunological mechanisms.…”

“…Experimental studies employing electrophysiological approaches, particularly patch-clamp techniques, have demonstrated that venom peptides can either enhance or suppress ion currents depending on their structural properties and binding sites [65]. Importantly, these effects are not restricted to neurons, as ion channels also participate in immune-cell activation and signaling, thereby linking electrophysiological modulation to immunological outcomes [57,64]. Venom components interact with neuronal membranes and ion channels, leading to functional disturbances in sodium (Na + ), potassium (K + ), and calcium (Ca 2+ ) channels.…”

Properties and Pharmacology of Scorpion Toxins and Their Biotechnological Potential in Agriculture and Medicine

“…Historically, scorpion toxins have been classified based on their interactions with ion channels, particularly voltage-gated sodium (Na v ), potassium (K v ), calcium (Ca v ), and chloride (ClC) channels, as a reflection of the central roles of these channels in neurophysiology and venom pathology, and also based on their primary amino acid sequences [ 7 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. While this general approach is still applied today, the advent of high-throughput sequencing, structural biology techniques, and, more recently, artificial intelligence [ 62 ] has greatly expanded our understanding of toxin diversity such that scorpion toxins can now be classified based not only on their primary sequences, but also on their three-dimensional folding patterns and the conservation of key functional residues [ 54 ].…”

“…Numerous transcriptomic and proteomic studies over the last 20 years [11,12,13,14,15,16,17] have revealed the complexity of scorpion venoms, particularly with regard to their peptide content [10,18,19,20]. These peptides have been extensively studied because of their structural diversity, their wide-range of pharmacological effects, and their potential to serve as pharmacological tools, such as ion channel [21,22,23,24] and G-protein-coupled receptor [25,26] modulators, as well as inhibitors of enzymatic activity, including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34] and matrix metalloproteinases [35]. Scorpion peptides have also been investigated as lead compounds for the development of novel therapeutic agents [10,36,37,38,39,40] to treat conditions such as bacterial [41,42,43,44,45] and viral [46,47] infections, cancer [47,48,49,50,51,52], pain [53,54], inflammation [39,55], diabetes [56] and hypertension [25,57,58].…”