Electrochemical sensor for ultrasensitive determination of ceftazidime using hollow platinum nanoparticles/reduced graphene oxide/pencil graphite electrode

Recent Developments in Voltammetric Analysis of Pharmaceuticals Using Disposable Pencil Graphite Electrodes

“…Although the problems solved by computational chemistry and chemometrics are different, one can also find situations where they contribute symbiotically to the development of robust procedures of pharmaceutical electroanalysis [121], as discussed at the end of this section. Subsequently, this section states briefly the problems solved in the reviewed articles either by chemometrics [23,88,106,107,121,122,129,142,143,153] or computational chemistry [48][49][50]86,106,107,114,115,117,121,122].…”

“…Depending on the nature of the structured materials engineered to cover the PGE surface, the number of experimental variates that influence the sensors' performance during the determinations can be numerous. Faced with the need to optimize many experimental parameters, multifactorial optimizations of the developed analytical procedures have been performed either by classical methods, such as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) or the Response Surface (RS) methodology [88,[105][106][107]129,142,143,153], or by more advanced chemometric tools, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) [121,122] or Genetic Algorithms (GAs) [121,122]. As input for the employed optimization methods, data acquired in one or two sets of developed experiments have been used, with the aim of limiting the number of determinations according to the available experimental designs of the following types: Plackett-Burman (PB) [106,107,121,122,129], central composite (CCD) [104,106,121,122,129,142,143], Box-Behnken [153], or Taguchi L25 orthogonal [88].…”

“…The electrochemical characterization of bare and modified electrodes was usually performed by CV [87,88,117,124,125,129] and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) using [Fe(CN) 6 ] 3−/4− as a redox probe and KCl as a supporting electrolyte [17,20,37,41,43,45,47,53,56,57,59,[63][64][65]69,80,85,87,90,105,117,124,125,127,131,132,136,[141][142][143]147], but [Ru(NH 3 ) 6 ] 3+/2+ was also used [38].…”

“…Chronoamperometry [68] and chronocoulometry were also used to assess the A ea of various working electrodes [53,62,143].…”

“…Thus, the larger semicircle indicates a high interfacial electron transfer resistance, whereas a small semicircle indicates a lower resistance, increased conductivity, and faster electron transfer. Usually, the ET [43,56,80] or modified electrodes employed [20,36,37,[45][46][47]53,57,59,61,[63][64][65]67,68,85,90,92,105,110,113,117,130,132,136,[141][142][143][144]147,148] in pharmaceutical quantification presented a much lower Rct and thus a higher electron transfer capability in comparison with the bare PGE or the electrodes modified during the different steps of the manufacturing process. For example, EIS measurements emphasized that by covering the PGE with MIP/sol-gel, the Rct increased due to the surface passivation and decreased after potentiostatic deposition of N-doped graphene [127], AuNPs [91], or phosphotungstic acid/reduced graphene oxide (PWA/rGO) [65] due to the electronconducting properties of the nanomaterials.…”