Effect of Freezing and Thawing on Human Milk Macronutrients and Energy Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Objective: To conduct a systematic review of the effect of freezing and thawing on the macronutrients and energy composition of human milk (HM). Design: Systematic review conducted in May 2019, including all studies reporting macronutrients and energy composition of HM, according to a search of MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Google Scholar using the keywords: HM, breast milk, macronutrients, fat, lipid, protein, carbohydrates, energy, calories, freezing, thawing, and of the references in studies identified as potentially relevant. Meta-analyses were conducted in all the studies that reported one or more of the following: total energy, true protein, fat, and carbohydrates. They were reported according to following groups of freezing duration: 1-7 days, 8-30 days, 31 days-3 months, and >3 months. They were calculated and expressed as weighted averages with pooled standard deviations. Results: Eight studies remained in the final analysis. Regression analyses did not find any significant increase or decrease over time of protein content, lactose content, fat content, or energy content of milk. Conclusions: No dramatic changes in macronutrients and energy contents of milk are expected to occur within the first few months of freezing.

Mother–infant interactions and infant intake during breastfeeding versus bottle‐feeding expressed breast milk

“…This dynamic quality of breast milk is lost when expressed breast milk is delivered via a bottle, but the significance of this loss for infant intake or eating behaviours remains unclear (Drewett, 1982;Nysenbaum & Smart, 1982;Smart, 1978). A recent meta-analysis did not find significant changes in the macronutrient or energy content of human milk that was fresh versus frozen and thawed (Yochpaz et al, 2020), but some aspects of human milk storage and preparation can negatively affect micronutrient profiles and bioactive components that may regulate appetite and growth (Ballard & Morrow, 2013;Fields et al, 2016). Storage conditions (e.g.…”

Testing detectability, attractivity, hedonic specificity, extractability, and robustness of colostrum odor—Toward an olfactory bioassay for human neonates

“…After a week of storage at −80 • C, only 28.6% infants still exhibited appetitive oral responses, whereas the autonomic responses showed an opposite pattern (viz., HR increase). This suggests that part of the odor conveyed in the isolated colostrum effluvium may have been altered or lost through the storage process (e.g., Yochpaz et al, 2020), and/or that its quality may have changed to elicit a defensive autonomic reaction in newborns (instead of the orientation reaction noted with the fresh effluvium of colostrum). This observation has two potential outcomes.…”