Effect of breakfast omission on subjective appetite, metabolism, acylated ghrelin and GLP-17-36 during rest and exercise

Abstract

Please cite this article as: Clayton DJ, Stensel DJ, James LJ, Effect of breakfast omission on subjective appetite, metabolism, acylated ghrelin and GLP-1 7-36 during rest and exercise, Nutrition (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2015.06.013. This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. Breakfast omission induces compensatory eating behaviour at lunch, but often reduces daily 21 energy intake. This study investigated the effect of breakfast omission on within-day 22 subjective appetite, energy expenditure, substrate utilisation and appetite hormone profiles, in 23 response to standardised feeding and exercise. Eight male, habitual breakfast eaters 24 completed two randomised trials. Subjects arrived overnight fasted (0 h), and either 25 consumed (BC) or omitted (BO) a standardised breakfast (Mean (SD) (3085 (217) kJ). Lunch 26(4162 (510) kJ) and dinner (4914 (345) kJ) were provided at 4.5 and 10 h, respectively and 27 subjects performed 60 min fixed-intensity cycling (50% VO 2 peak) at 8 h. Blood samples 28 were collected at 0, 4.5, 6 and 8 h, with expired air and subjective appetite sensations 29 (hunger, fullness, desire to eat (DTE) and prospective food consumption (PFC)) collected 30 throughout. Heart rate and perceived exertion were measured during exercise. Hunger, DTE 31 and PFC were greater and fullness lower during BO (P<0.05) between breakfast and lunch, 32 with no differences after lunch (P>0.193). Resting energy expenditure was greater at 2.5 h 33 during BC (P<0.05) with no other differences between trials (P>0.156). GLP-1 7-36 was 34 greater (P<0.05) and acylated ghrelin tended to be greater (P=0.078) at 4.5 h during BC. 35Heart rate was greater on BO (P<0.05) during exercise. The results of this laboratory-36 controlled study suggest that the effects of breakfast omission are transient and do not extend 37 beyond lunch, even when the negative energy balance created by breakfast omission is 38 sustained via standardised feeding and exercise.

The effect of breakfast on appetite regulation, energy balance and exercise performance

“…Additionally, this study found that the glycaemic response to a standardised lunch was attenuated in habitual breakfast omitters, suggesting some metabolic adaptation may occur over time. In a similar study, Clayton et al (29) found no difference in acylated ghrelin or GLP-1 concentrations either 1·5 or 3·5 h after a standardised lunch. Collectively, these studies suggest breakfast minimally affects the orexigenic appetite hormone ghrelin, with some evidence that breakfast may increases anorexigenic hormone profiles, in response to subsequent standardised feeding.…”

“…However, it is interesting to note that the subjective appetite response to subsequent meals appears to be unaffected by prior omission of breakfast, suggesting that consumption of breakfast only provides a transient suppression of appetite (23,24,(26)(27)(28)(29) . This was recently investigated in two studies that were designed to determine how 24 h subjective appetite profiles responded to breakfast consumption or omission, with ad libitum (28) or standardised (29) lunch and dinner meals. In these studies, breakfast (25 % estimated energy requirements) was consumed at 08·00 hours, with lunch and dinner meals consumed at 12·30 and 18·00-19·00 hours.…”

“…The intake of food in the morning will inevitably increase morning energy expenditure due to an increase in dietary-induced thermogenesis (47) . Consumption of breakfast has been shown to increase RMR during the morning, compared with when no breakfast was provided (14,29,30) . Beyond lunch, breakfast does not appear to affect RMR, whether the energy deficit from breakfast omission is recovered at subsequent meals (48) or if the energy deficit is sustained by matching energy intake at lunch across trials (29,30) .…”

“…Consumption of breakfast has been shown to increase RMR during the morning, compared with when no breakfast was provided (14,29,30) . Beyond lunch, breakfast does not appear to affect RMR, whether the energy deficit from breakfast omission is recovered at subsequent meals (48) or if the energy deficit is sustained by matching energy intake at lunch across trials (29,30) . Typically, daily energy expenditure has been assessed using a calorimetry chamber (43,48) or indirect calorimetry (14,29,30) .…”

Viscous placebo and carbohydrate breakfasts similarly decrease appetite and increase resistance exercise performance compared with a control breakfast in trained males

“…Following an overnight fast, hunger is elevated, with consumption of breakfast suppressing hunger (18)(19)(20) , an effect that may be regulated by hormones involved in appetite regulation. Whether such appetite effects play a role in any performance responses to pre-exercise feeding is unknown, since most studies have not measured the two in combination, but Naharudin et al (16) reported that the increased resistance exercise performance following breakfast occurred concurrently with a suppression in hunger.…”