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The genus Brevibacterium harbors many members important for cheese ripening. We performed real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) to determine the abundance of Brevibacterium on rinds of Vorarlberger Bergkäse, an Austrian artisanal washed-rind hard cheese, over 160 days of ripening. Our results show that Brevibacterium are abundant on Vorarlberger Bergkäse rinds throughout the ripening time. To elucidate the impact of Brevibacterium on cheese production, we analysed the genomes of three cheese rind isolates, L261, S111, and S22. L261 belongs to Brevibacterium aurantiacum , whereas S111 and S22 represent novel species within the genus Brevibacterium based on 16S rRNA gene similarity and average nucleotide identity. Our comparative genomic analysis showed that important cheese ripening enzymes are conserved among the genus Brevibacterium . Strain S22 harbors a 22 kb circular plasmid which encodes putative iron and hydroxymethylpyrimidine/thiamine transporters. Histamine formation in fermented foods can cause histamine intoxication. We revealed the presence of a putative metabolic pathway for histamine degradation. Growth experiments showed that the three Brevibacterium strains can utilize histamine as the sole carbon source. The capability to utilize histamine, possibly encoded by the putative histamine degradation pathway, highlights the importance of Brevibacterium as key cheese ripening cultures beyond their contribution to cheese flavor production.
The genus Brevibacterium harbors many members important for cheese ripening. We performed real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) to determine the abundance of Brevibacterium on rinds of Vorarlberger Bergkäse, an Austrian artisanal washed-rind hard cheese, over 160 days of ripening. Our results show that Brevibacterium are abundant on Vorarlberger Bergkäse rinds throughout the ripening time. To elucidate the impact of Brevibacterium on cheese production, we analysed the genomes of three cheese rind isolates, L261, S111, and S22. L261 belongs to Brevibacterium aurantiacum , whereas S111 and S22 represent novel species within the genus Brevibacterium based on 16S rRNA gene similarity and average nucleotide identity. Our comparative genomic analysis showed that important cheese ripening enzymes are conserved among the genus Brevibacterium . Strain S22 harbors a 22 kb circular plasmid which encodes putative iron and hydroxymethylpyrimidine/thiamine transporters. Histamine formation in fermented foods can cause histamine intoxication. We revealed the presence of a putative metabolic pathway for histamine degradation. Growth experiments showed that the three Brevibacterium strains can utilize histamine as the sole carbon source. The capability to utilize histamine, possibly encoded by the putative histamine degradation pathway, highlights the importance of Brevibacterium as key cheese ripening cultures beyond their contribution to cheese flavor production.
Smear-ripened cheeses are characterized by a viscous, red-orange surface smear on their rind. It is the complex surface microbiota on the cheese rind that is responsible for the characteristic appearance of this cheese type, but also for the wide range of flavors and textures of the many varieties of smear-ripened cheeses. The surface smear microbiota also represents an important line of defense against the colonization with undesirable microorganisms through various types of interaction, such as competitive exclusion or production of antimicrobial substances. Predominant members of the surface smear microbiota are salt-tolerant yeast and bacteria of the phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. In the past, classical culture-based approaches already shed light on the composition and succession of microorganisms and their individual contribution to the typicity of this cheese type. However, during the last decade, the introduction and application of novel molecular approaches with high-resolution power provided further in-depth analysis and, thus, a much more detailed view of the composition, structure, and diversity of the cheese smear microbiota. This led to abundant novel knowledge, such as the identification of so far unknown community members. Hence, this review is summarizing the current knowledge of the diversity of the surface smear microbiota and its contribution to the quality and safety of smear-ripened cheese. If the succession or composition of the surface-smear microbiota is disturbed, cheese smear defects might occur, which may promote food safety issues. Hence, the discussion of cheese smear defects in the context of an increased understanding of the intricate surface smear ecosystem in this review may not only help in troubleshooting and quality control but also paves the way for innovations that can lead to safer, more consistent, and higher-quality smear-ripened cheeses.
This study presents a comparative analysis of halophiles from the global open sea and coastal biosystems through shotgun metagenomes (n = 209) retrieved from public repositories. The open sea was significantly enriched with Prochlorococcus and Candidatus pelagibacter. Meanwhile, coastal biosystems were dominated by Marinobacter and Alcanivorax. Halophilic archaea Haloarcula and Haloquandratum, predominant in the coastal biosystem, were significantly (p < 0.05) enriched in coastal biosystems compared to the open sea. Analysis of whole genomes (n = 23,540), retrieved from EzBioCloud, detected crtI in 64.66% of genomes, while cruF was observed in 1.69% Bacteria and 40.75% Archaea. We further confirmed the viability and carotenoid pigment production by pure culture isolation (n = 1351) of extreme halophiles from sediments (n = 410 × 3) sampling at the Arabian coastline of India. All red-pigmented isolates were represented exclusively by Haloferax, resistant to saturated NaCl (6 M), and had >60% G + C content. Multidrug resistance to tetracycline, gentamicin, ampicillin, and chloramphenicol were also observed. Our study showed that coastal biosystems could be more suited for bioprospection of halophiles rather than the open sea.
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