Dietary calcium intake and bone mineral density among Macedonian women

Abstract

Introduction. Osteoporosis is a complex, multi-factorial bone disease leading to increased risk of fracture. Calcium as a nutrient is associated with the formation and metabolism of bone. The inadequate calcium intake leads to decreased bone mineralization and consequently an increased risk of osteoporosis. Materials and methods. The study group was constituted by 104 postmenopausal women. Bone mineral density (BMD) at the participants' lumbar spin and hip was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The daily calcium intake (DCI) was assessed using a validated quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Each participant also completed a core questionnaire that included general demographic data as well as questions about personal and family history of fractures, menopause onset, lifestyle behaviors, and corticosteroids use. Results and discussion. The mean daily calcium intake among our study participants was 854.3±260.4 mg which is below the calcium recommended nutrient intake (RNI) for postmenopausal women. This study's findings confirmed that the reduction of the bone mineral density (BMD), reported using T-scores, depends on age and choice of measurement site. Our results also showed that higher body mass and body mass index (BMI) in participants are associated with higher BMD. The reduced bone density among postmenopausal women was related with the existence of previous personal fractures and the family history of fractures in diagnosed persons. The insight into exogenous risk factors of osteoporosis in this study showed that the most of the participants consume caffeine every day and have insufficient physical activity and sun exposure. Conclusions. Education on the importance of calcium in the diet and knowledge on the lifestyle factors that affect bone loss are needed toward decreasing risk for osteoporosis and related fractures in postmenopausal women.