Developmental and geographic variation in stress hormones in wild Belding's ground squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi)

Abstract

Extensive research has been conducted on the role of glucocorticoids in regulating growth, mobilizing energy, responding to stressors and modulating learning and memory. However, little is known about the production of corticoids during early development in free-living animals, particularly during sensitive periods of acquisition of important behaviors. In a four-year study of Belding's ground squirrels, Spermophilus beldingi, a non-invasive assay of glucocorticoids was used to quantify age and population differences among juveniles from three California locations. Fecal-cortisol metabolites are elevated during a short period when juveniles first emerge aboveground from their natal burrows at about 4 weeks of age. This period of cortisol elevation coincides with when young are learning survival behaviors such as anti-predator responses and foraging strategies. Population differences in juvenile cortisol levels, which may reflect local variation in habitat quality and predator environments, were not evident until 2 weeks after emergence. Elevated cortisol at the age of emergence was also observed in juveniles born and reared in captivity without exposure to typical stressors that occur around the age of emergence. These results indicate that corticoids are regulated during early development, and the possible functions of age-related corticoid levels are discussed, including mobilization of glucose for natal emergence and later facilitation of growth and energy storage during the short summer before hibernation. In some species, elevated corticoids can also facilitate learning and memory, and current work is exploring whether the higher cortisol observed in all three S. beldingi populations just after emergence function to promote rapid acquisition of survival behaviors.

An ontogenetic perspective on individual differences

“…For instance, an individual's inherent genetic quality (sensu [1]) could largely determine its pre-hibernation fat load over the course of its life [12]. However, different pre-hibernation foraging strategies [13], resulting from parental [14] or environmental effects on development [15], could also cause individuals to repeatedly carry low fat loads. Meanwhile, experienced habitat quality [16], masting conditions [17] or climatic events [18] might cause an individual to do so temporarily.…”

The effect of ACTH upon faecal glucocorticoid excretion in the koala

“…Short-term GC secretions, resulting from acute stress (e.g. predator attack), are beneficial, as they assist an animal in coping with a stressor by mobilising energy reserves during the stressful situation (Lee & Cockburn 1985, Wingfield et al 1998, Sapolsky 2002, Mateo 2006. However, if the stress persists over a long period (i.e.…”

Effect of Endogenous Faecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites on Reproduction in Wild Pigs - A Non Invasive Approach

“…In this regard, it becomes noteworthy to mention the report furnished by Pride [7] who quoted that glucocorticoid measures could be useful predictors of individual survival probabilities in the wild populations and existence of high glucocorticoid levels indicated the lowered individual fitness or even population variability. Mateo [8] opined that elevation of cortisol observed at emergence might facilitate the acquisition of anti-predator behaviors. The encountering of elevated level of faecal cortisol concentrations in majority of individual wild pigs indicated the existence of stress causing factors pertaining to the wild pigs belonging to Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam and Anaimalai wild life regions.…”