Agricultural pest infestation is as old as domestication of food crops and contributes a major 24 share to the cost of crop production. Transgenic production of Vip3A, an insecticidal protein 25 from Bacillus thuringiensis, effectively controls lepidopteran pests. A synthetic vip3A gene was 26 evaluated its efficacy against Spodoptera litura (cotton leafworm), Spodoptera exigua (beet 27 armyworm), Spodoptera frugiperda (fall armyworm), Helicoverpa armigera (cotton bollworm), 28 Helicoverpa zea (corn earworm), Heliothis virescens (tobacco budworm), and Manduca sexta 29 (tobacco hornworm). In artificial diet assays, the Vip3A concentration causing 50% mortality 30 was H. zea > H. virescens > S. exigua > H. armigera > M. sexta > S. frugiperda > S. litura. In 31 contrast, on vip3A transgenic tobacco the order of resistance (time until 50% lethality) was M. 32 sexta > H. virescens > S. litura > H. zea > H. armigera > S. exigua > S. frugiperda. There was 33 no significant correlation between the artificial diet and transgenic tobacco effects. Notably, the 34 two insect species that are best-adapted for growth on tobacco, M. sexta and H. virescens, 35 showed the greatest tolerance of vip3A-transgenic tobacco. This may indicate synergistic effects 36 of Vip3A and endogenous plant defense mechanisms, e.g. nicotine, to which M. sexta and H. 37 virescens would have greater resistance. Together, our results show that artificial diet assays are 38 a poor predictor of Vip3A efficacy in transgenic plants, lepidopteran species vary in their 39 sensitivity to Vip3A in diet-dependent manner, and that host plant adaptation of the targeted 40 herbivores should be considered when designing transgenic plants for pest control.41 42