Detection of inflammatory biomarkers in saliva and urine: Potential in diagnosis, prevention, and treatment for chronic diseases

Abstract

Inflammation is a part of the complex biological response of inflammatory cells to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, irritants, or damaged cells. This inflammation has been linked to several chronic diseases including cancer, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. Major biomarkers of inflammation include tumor necrosis factor, interleukins (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-8, chemokines, cyclooxygenase, 5-lipooxygenase, and C-reactive protein, all of which are regulated by the transcription factor nuclear factor-kappaB. Although examining inflammatory biomarkers in blood is a standard practice, its identification in saliva and/or urine is more convenient and non-invasive. In this review, we aim to (1) discuss the detection of these inflammatory biomarkers in urine and saliva; (2) advantages of using salivary and urinary inflammatory biomarkers over blood, while also weighing on the challenges and/or limitations of their use; (3) examine their role(s) in connection with diagnosis, prevention, treatment, and drug development for several chronic diseases with inflammatory consequences, including cancer; and (4) explore the use of innovative salivary and urine based biosensor strategies that may permit the testing of biomarkers quickly, reliably, and cost-effectively, in a decentralized setting.

The Relation between Periodontopathogenic Bacterial Levels and Resistin in the Saliva of Obese Type 2 Diabetic Patients

“…The high resistin level in obese people may be linked to the microbiota inhabiting the mouth as LPS from periodontopathogenic bacteria has been reported as an inducer for the expression of resistin [ 27 – 29 ]. Our study depended on noninvasive saliva sampling without invasive blood collection [ 40 ]. Further studies must be conducted in the future to compare the levels of resistin in the saliva and serum in both periodontally healthy and diseased patients in order to confirm the role of the periodontopathogenic bacteria in the induction of local resistin secretion in the saliva.…”

Inflammatory markers in saliva for diagnosis of sepsis of hospitalizes patients

“…Javaid et al 5 reported that saliva is a potential diagnostic tool due to its ease of collection and noninvasiveness. Moreover, salivary diagnostic tests could allow the screening of specific diseases in the whole population on a prompt basis 5‐7 …”

Detection of Taenia solium DNA in the Urine of Neurocysticercosis Patients

“…Recent advances in the identification of biomarkers for CNS inflammation in the context of a spectrum of brain diseases have demonstrated that these markers are detectable in the urine of patients. [15][16][17] Combining cfDNA analysis with identification of biomarkers of CNS inflammation holds the potential for a sensitive and specific approach for the diagnose NCC from a single urine sample.…”