Detection of COVID-19-related biomarkers by electrochemical biosensors and potential for diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction of the course of the disease in the context of personalized medicine

Abstract

As a more efficient and effective way to address disease diagnosis and intervention, cutting-edge technologies, devices, therapeutic approaches, and practices have emerged within the personalized medicine concept depending on the particular patient's biology and the molecular basis of the disease. Personalized medicine is expected to play a pivotal role in assessing disease risk or predicting response to treatment, understanding a person's health status, and, therefore, health care decision-making. This work discusses electrochemical biosensors for monitoring multiparametric biomarkers at different molecular levels and their potential to elucidate the health status of an individual in a personalized manner. In particular, and as an illustration, we discuss several aspects of the infection produced by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as a current health care concern worldwide. This includes SARS-CoV-2 structure, mechanism of infection, biomarkers, and electrochemical biosensors most commonly explored for diagnostics, prognostics, and potentially assessing the risk of complications in patients in the context of personalized medicine. Finally, some concluding remarks and perspectives hint at the use of electrochemical biosensors in the frame of other cutting-edge converging/emerging technologies toward the inauguration of a new paradigm of personalized medicine. Graphical abstract

Ribosome biogenesis in disease: new players and therapeutic targets

“… 298 To achieve this goal, it is critical to develop biosensors to detect biomarkers such as viral molecules, ACE2 receptor, vitamin D levels, IgG, IgM antibodies, and C-reactive protein to help medical professionals to diagnose infection, determine the risk of infection, monitor immune response, and assess disease severity. 299 …”

“…298 To achieve this goal, it is critical to develop biosensors to detect biomarkers such as viral molecules, ACE2 receptor, vitamin D levels, IgG, IgM antibodies, and C-reactive protein to help medical professionals to diagnose infection, determine the risk of infection, monitor immune and assess disease severity. 299 Technological advances opened a new door to many aspects of ribosome biogenesis. Several new technologies, such as polysome profiling, ribosome-sequence, cryo-electron microscopy, and translating ribosome affinity purification, can accurately assess ribosome morphology, structure, translocation, ribosome-"frameshift", ribosome-stalling, and ribosome-collision.…”

Voltammetric Sensors: A Versatile Tool in COVID‐19 Diagnosis and Prognosis

“…can helpful in determining the viral infection in patients. [27] It is also found that vitamin D deficiency can be a determining factor in suseptability towards COVID-19 infection. [29] In addition, serum albumin, glucose and protein levels in urine etc have been found to be high in critically affected people.…”

“…Others: micro RNAs, total testosterone, creatine kinase, bradykinin, pulmonary microbiota etc. can helpful in determining the viral infection in patients [27] . It is also found that vitamin D deficiency can be a determining factor in suseptability towards COVID‐19 infection [29] .…”

“…Their levels are found to be significantly raised in COVID‐19 patients [26] Biochemical: D‐dimer, ctn and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels have been considered as indicative of risk of mortality in patients [27] Others: micro RNAs, total testosterone, creatine kinase, bradykinin, pulmonary microbiota etc.…”