Depression, anxiety, stress, and physical activity of Australian adults during COVID-19: A combined longitudinal and repeated cross-sectional study

Abstract

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has led to a worsening of mental health and health behaviors. While physical activity is positively associated mental health, there is limited understanding of how mental health and physical activity evolve throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to examine changes in depression, anxiety and stress and physical activity, and associations between depression, anxiety, and stress with physical activity in Australian adults across three-time points during the COVID-19 pandemic.Materials and methodsThis study collected both longitudinal and cross-sectional data at three-time points during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia (i.e., April, July/August, and December 2020). Australians aged 18 years and over were invited to complete online surveys hosted on Qualtrics survey platform. Linear mixed models with random subject effect and general linear models were used to analyze the longitudinal and repeated cross-sectional data respectively.ResultsThe number of participants in cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys was 1,877 and 849, respectively. There was an overall reduction between time 2 vs. time 3 in depression (d = 1.03, 95% CI = 0.20, 1.85), anxiety (d = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.02, 1.12), and stress (d = 1.13, 95% CI = 0.21, 2.04) scores but no significant differences in physical activity across three-time points. On average, participants who met the physical activity guidelines had lower depression (d = −2.08, 95% CI = −2.90, −1.26), anxiety (d = −0.88, 95% CI = −1.41, −0.34), and stress (d = −1.35, 95% CI = −2.13, −0.56) scores compared to those not meeting the guidelines.ConclusionIn the context of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, both governments and service providers should continue to provide the public with timely mental health support and promote the benefits of physical activity, as a cost-effective strategy to improve mental health and wellbeing.

The longer-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on wellbeing and cognitive functioning of older adults

“…Moreover, dissatisfaction with social support increased during lockdowns, and life satisfaction further decreased over time. Studies in other countries showed similar uctuations in wellbeing depending on the severity of the pandemic [12], [13] whereas others showed stable, low levels of mental health over the course of the pandemic [14]. With regards to cognitive functioning, studies in the general population using online cognitive test batteries showed lower levels of processing speed and goal maintenance compared to before COVID-19 and during the rst months of the pandemic.…”

An examination of the reciprocal associations between physical activity and anxiety, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality during the first 9 weeks of the COVID-19 pandemic in Belgium

“…Nonetheless, being active may have been especially important as it might help in fostering greater psychological well-being, which was under threat during the initial lockdown in March 2020, as evidenced by an increase in symptoms of anxiety and depression (e.g., Ozamiz-Etxebarria et al, 2020 ) and poorer sleep quality (e.g., Casagrande et al, 2020 ). Indeed, research showed that PA and (poor) mental health are related, as people who report being equally or more physically active than usual during the COVID-19 lockdown reported lower levels of anxiety and depression ( Frontini et al, 2021 ; Lesser & Nienhuis, 2020 ; see Wolf et al, 2021 for a systematic review; Zhao et al, 2022 ), whereas other studies showed that the reduction of total PA came with more symptoms of poor mental health, such as anxiety and depression ( Trabelsi et al, 2021 ; see Violant-Holz et al, 2020 for a systematic review). Moreover, performing PA during the lockdown was positively associated with people's sleep patterns ( Şimşek et al, 2020 ; Violant-Holz et al, 2020 ).…”

Effect of decrease of physical activity on depression and anxiety after the COVID-19 lockdown: A survey study

“…Specifically, there is little research on how changes in physical activity and increase of sedentary behavior is connected (or perhaps influences) mental health, specifically anxiety, and depression. One of the latest studies, made in Australia by Zhao et al (2022) suggest that participants who met the physical activity guidelines had lower depression scores. None of the studies compared PA and mood disorders at the times of COVID-19 lockdown in people, who used to train competitive sport and people, who have never competed in any sport.…”