Demographic factors affecting assertive and defensive behavior in preschool children: An ethological study

Abstract

Observations were made of naturally occurring assertive and defensive behaviors among preschool children, using ethological methods. Four major classes of assertive behavior were studied: attempts to gain possession of objects, personal space intrusion, positive directives, and negative directives; in addition, behavior with aggressive characteristics was studied. The effects of the following demographic factors upon individual frequencies of assertive interaction initiation, probability of defense (to assertive initiations), and frequencies of aggressive behavior were examined: age, sex, birth order, sib group size, ethnic identity, number of parents in the home, father's occupational level, father's education, mother's employment (yes/no), mother's occupational level, mother's education. Results of the multiple regression analyses indicated the most widespread effects for ethnic identity, number of parents in home, age, and sex. The most assertive children tended to be nonwhite/black, older, male, and from single‐parent homes. These results were fairly consistent across all classes of assertive behavior studied. There were only minor effects of social class on assertive behaviors, and the demographic characteristics of the sample indicated that the ethnic differences existed independent of social class. Limitations in interpreting the behaviors studied as indicating an underlying aggressive motivation are discussed.

Communication Patterns of African American Girls and Boys from Low-Income, Urban Backgrounds

“…Similar patterns were seen in Leaper's (1991) earlier study with mostly European American children. Our results are also consistent with other reports indicating a greater likelihood of power-assertive strategies for boys than for girls among both European American children (Fagot & Hagan, 1985;Serbin et al, 1982) and African American children (Weigel, 1985). We were also able to replicate Leaper's (1991) finding that girls were more likely than boys to use affiliative communication.…”

Communication Patterns of African American Girls and Boys from Low-Income, Urban Backgrounds

“…Similar patterns were seen in Leaper's (1991) earlier study with mostly European American children. Our results are also consistent with other reports indicating a greater likelihood of power-assertive strategies for boys than for girls among both European American children (Fagot & Hagan, 1985;Serbin et al, 1982) and African American children (Weigel, 1985). We were also able to replicate Leaper's (1991) finding that girls were more likely than boys to use affiliative communication.…”

Positively biased self‐perceptions of peer acceptance and subtypes of aggression in children

“…It is thus important that studies examining associations between bias and aggression include gender as a control variable in prediction models. Similarly, because past research has found significant differences across racial and ethnic groups with African American children showing more aggressive behavior and positive bias than Caucasian children (e.g., Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli, 1982; Dunkel, Kistner, & David-Ferdon, 2010; Kistner, Metzler, Gatlin, & Risi, 1993; Farrington, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, Kammen, & Schmidt, 1996; Weigel, 1985; Zakriski & Coie, 1996), it is important to statistically control for race/ethnicity. Peer rejection is another variable that is related to positively biased self-perceptions and aggression (e.g., Bierman, Smoot, & Aumiller, 1993; Cassidy & Asher, 1992; Coie, Lochman, & Hyman, 1992; Crick & Ladd, 1990; Dodge et al, 2003; Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003; Parker & Asher, 1987).…”

Intercommunity Differences in Aggression among Zapotec Children

“…Huesmann et al (1984Huesmann et al ( , p. 1120 suggest that conditions that facilitate the learning of aggressive behavior "seem to be those in which the child has many opportunities to observe aggression, in which the child is reinforced for his or her own aggression, and in which the child is the object of aggression." Likewise, but regarding the learning of nonviolent patterns of behavior, Dentan (1978, p. 132) of young children seems to be motivated by playful intentions rather than hostility (see Blurton Jones, 1967McGrew, 1972;Smith & Lewis, 1985;Weigel, 1985). Previous ethnographic reports suggest that parents tend to discourage play fighting in at least one nonviolent Zapotec community in the Valley of Oaxaca (O'Nell, 1969, p. 251).…”

“…Fagen (1981) reaches similar conclusions regarding the evolutionary functions of animal play fighting. Regarding humans, Smith (1982, p. 151) speculates that "the adaptive value of play-fighting as practice for adult fighting skills would have been maintained through hominid evolution...." This proposal and other aspects of Smith's (1982) article have received considerable discussion (see the commentary section following Smith, 1982 Humphreys & Smith, 1984, and references therein;Whiting & Edwards, 1973) and serious fighting (Blurton Jones & Konner, 1973;Brindley, Clarke, Hutt, Robinson, & Wethi, 1973;Weigel, 1985) than girls, although in some studies no significant sex differences are reported for play fighting (Smith & Lewis, 1985) or serious fighting (Blurton Jones, 1972;Smith & Lewis, 1985;Whiting & Edwards, 1973). Additionally, several studies on preschool-age children report that aggressive behavior increases with age (see Blurton Jones, 1972;Weigel, 1985).…”

Communication Patterns of African American Girls and Boys from Low-Income, Urban Backgrounds

“…Similar patterns were seen in Leaper's (1991) earlier study with mostly European American children. Our results are also consistent with other reports indicating a greater likelihood of power-assertive strategies for boys than for girls among both European American children (Fagot & Hagan, 1985;Serbin et al, 1982) and African American children (Weigel, 1985). We were also able to replicate Leaper's (1991) finding that girls were more likely than boys to use affiliative communication.…”

Positively biased self‐perceptions of peer acceptance and subtypes of aggression in children

“…It is thus important that studies examining associations between bias and aggression include gender as a control variable in prediction models. Similarly, because past research has found significant differences across racial and ethnic groups with African American children showing more aggressive behavior and positive bias than Caucasian children (e.g., Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli, 1982; Dunkel, Kistner, & David-Ferdon, 2010; Kistner, Metzler, Gatlin, & Risi, 1993; Farrington, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, Kammen, & Schmidt, 1996; Weigel, 1985; Zakriski & Coie, 1996), it is important to statistically control for race/ethnicity. Peer rejection is another variable that is related to positively biased self-perceptions and aggression (e.g., Bierman, Smoot, & Aumiller, 1993; Cassidy & Asher, 1992; Coie, Lochman, & Hyman, 1992; Crick & Ladd, 1990; Dodge et al, 2003; Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003; Parker & Asher, 1987).…”

Intercommunity Differences in Aggression among Zapotec Children

“…Huesmann et al (1984Huesmann et al ( , p. 1120 suggest that conditions that facilitate the learning of aggressive behavior "seem to be those in which the child has many opportunities to observe aggression, in which the child is reinforced for his or her own aggression, and in which the child is the object of aggression." Likewise, but regarding the learning of nonviolent patterns of behavior, Dentan (1978, p. 132) of young children seems to be motivated by playful intentions rather than hostility (see Blurton Jones, 1967McGrew, 1972;Smith & Lewis, 1985;Weigel, 1985). Previous ethnographic reports suggest that parents tend to discourage play fighting in at least one nonviolent Zapotec community in the Valley of Oaxaca (O'Nell, 1969, p. 251).…”

“…Fagen (1981) reaches similar conclusions regarding the evolutionary functions of animal play fighting. Regarding humans, Smith (1982, p. 151) speculates that "the adaptive value of play-fighting as practice for adult fighting skills would have been maintained through hominid evolution...." This proposal and other aspects of Smith's (1982) article have received considerable discussion (see the commentary section following Smith, 1982 Humphreys & Smith, 1984, and references therein;Whiting & Edwards, 1973) and serious fighting (Blurton Jones & Konner, 1973;Brindley, Clarke, Hutt, Robinson, & Wethi, 1973;Weigel, 1985) than girls, although in some studies no significant sex differences are reported for play fighting (Smith & Lewis, 1985) or serious fighting (Blurton Jones, 1972;Smith & Lewis, 1985;Whiting & Edwards, 1973). Additionally, several studies on preschool-age children report that aggressive behavior increases with age (see Blurton Jones, 1972;Weigel, 1985).…”

Communication Patterns of African American Girls and Boys from Low-Income, Urban Backgrounds

“…Similar patterns were seen in Leaper's (1991) earlier study with mostly European American children. Our results are also consistent with other reports indicating a greater likelihood of power-assertive strategies for boys than for girls among both European American children (Fagot & Hagan, 1985;Serbin et al, 1982) and African American children (Weigel, 1985). We were also able to replicate Leaper's (1991) finding that girls were more likely than boys to use affiliative communication.…”

Positively biased self‐perceptions of peer acceptance and subtypes of aggression in children

“…It is thus important that studies examining associations between bias and aggression include gender as a control variable in prediction models. Similarly, because past research has found significant differences across racial and ethnic groups with African American children showing more aggressive behavior and positive bias than Caucasian children (e.g., Coie, Dodge, & Coppotelli, 1982; Dunkel, Kistner, & David-Ferdon, 2010; Kistner, Metzler, Gatlin, & Risi, 1993; Farrington, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, Kammen, & Schmidt, 1996; Weigel, 1985; Zakriski & Coie, 1996), it is important to statistically control for race/ethnicity. Peer rejection is another variable that is related to positively biased self-perceptions and aggression (e.g., Bierman, Smoot, & Aumiller, 1993; Cassidy & Asher, 1992; Coie, Lochman, & Hyman, 1992; Crick & Ladd, 1990; Dodge et al, 2003; Ladd & Troop-Gordon, 2003; Parker & Asher, 1987).…”

Intercommunity Differences in Aggression among Zapotec Children

“…Huesmann et al (1984Huesmann et al ( , p. 1120 suggest that conditions that facilitate the learning of aggressive behavior "seem to be those in which the child has many opportunities to observe aggression, in which the child is reinforced for his or her own aggression, and in which the child is the object of aggression." Likewise, but regarding the learning of nonviolent patterns of behavior, Dentan (1978, p. 132) of young children seems to be motivated by playful intentions rather than hostility (see Blurton Jones, 1967McGrew, 1972;Smith & Lewis, 1985;Weigel, 1985). Previous ethnographic reports suggest that parents tend to discourage play fighting in at least one nonviolent Zapotec community in the Valley of Oaxaca (O'Nell, 1969, p. 251).…”

“…Fagen (1981) reaches similar conclusions regarding the evolutionary functions of animal play fighting. Regarding humans, Smith (1982, p. 151) speculates that "the adaptive value of play-fighting as practice for adult fighting skills would have been maintained through hominid evolution...." This proposal and other aspects of Smith's (1982) article have received considerable discussion (see the commentary section following Smith, 1982 Humphreys & Smith, 1984, and references therein;Whiting & Edwards, 1973) and serious fighting (Blurton Jones & Konner, 1973;Brindley, Clarke, Hutt, Robinson, & Wethi, 1973;Weigel, 1985) than girls, although in some studies no significant sex differences are reported for play fighting (Smith & Lewis, 1985) or serious fighting (Blurton Jones, 1972;Smith & Lewis, 1985;Whiting & Edwards, 1973). Additionally, several studies on preschool-age children report that aggressive behavior increases with age (see Blurton Jones, 1972;Weigel, 1985).…”