Deficit or Credit? A Comparative, Qualitative Study of Gender Agency and Female Gang Membership in Los Angeles and Glasgow

Abstract

To date, there has been a paucity of comparative, qualitative research exploring the nuances of women’s gang involvement beyond the United States. In this article, we seek to address this gap by drawing upon qualitative interviews with small samples of self-nominated female gang members in Los Angeles, California (United States) and Glasgow, Scotland (United Kingdom). The emerging insights indicated that two key models of entry into the “social field” of the gang emerged in the data: a deficit model entry linked to drugs and debt and a credit model of entry where women were considered to bring social skill, expertise, and agency into the gang. Implications in terms of testable hypotheses for future research as well as for future practice are outlined.

The variable and evolving nature of ‘cuckooing’ as a form of criminal exploitation in street level drug markets

“…Sandberg's (2008) concept of street capital is useful for understanding how some are able to find the resources to push back against experiences of unwanted cuckooing and why some are seemingly able resist cuckooing all together (see Moyle forthcoming). Similar to recent arguments in relation to the undertaking of street robbery and female gang involvement (Deuchar et al 2018;Harding et al 2018) consideration of Bourdieu's concepts of habitus and economic and social capital also seem important in considering how structural pressures and cultural norms can combine and become internalised to a produce a 'practical sense'with drug-related activities representing an instinctive solution for income generation (see Moyle and Coomber 2017). It is seemingly the combination of factors such as these which expose people to cuckooing, or makes them initially willing to house dealers.…”

Street gangs and coercive control: The gendered exploitation of young women and girls in county lines

“…This study contributes to the growing literature on female gang involvement in Britain (e.g. Batchelor, 2009; Beckett et al, 2013; Deuchar et al, 2020; Firmin, 2011; Harding, 2014; Young, 2009; Young and Trickett, 2017) and the criminal exploitation of children and young people in ‘county lines’ drug sales (Harding, 2020; McLean et al, 2020; Spicer, 2021). In-depth interviews and focus groups with criminal justice and social service practitioners in London, England, revealed that an evolving county lines business model of drug distribution (Whittaker et al, 2018, 2020a) has facilitated the recruitment of girls and young women into gangs, exposing them to uniquely gendered risks of victimisation and ill treatment.…”

“…We see a critical need for research examining women’s agency (or lack thereof) in gang offending (e.g. Deuchar et al, 2020; Young and Trickett, 2017) and the different gendered pathways in and out of gang life. Our findings emphasise that young women experience exploitation in gangs, but it is clear from prior research that some occupy relatively powerful positions (e.g.…”

“…Women in gangs were more likely to have experienced familial neglect or abuse than their male counterparts, or females not involved with gangs (De La Rue and Espelage, 2014). A recent study comparing and contrasting the experiences of female gang members in Los Angeles, the United States, and Glasgow, Scotland, found that women entering gangs in 'deficit' owing to histories of domestic abuse, drug dependency and debt had radically different offending and victimisation trajectories than more networked women who entered the gang in 'credit', bringing social skill and professional agency and expertise to the group (Deuchar et al, 2020). Women in credit exercised far greater agency over their offending and, in most cases, enjoyed greater financial success in criminal endeavours.…”

Caregiver Type and Gang Involvement: A Comparison of Female and Male Gang Members

“…Due to the higher propensity of criminal offending among gang members, scholars continue to investigate why youths join gangs. This body of research has identified various risk factors that increase the likelihood of gang involvement, including poor academic performance, traumatic experiences, and poor family life (Deuchar et al 2020;Miller 2001;2008;Moore and Hagedorn 2001). While specific family characteristics have been identified to increase youths' likelihood of joining a gang, it is unclear if family structure or primary caregiver type impacts this risk.…”