Damage caused by insects during the mummification process: an experimental study

Abstract

The process of mummification had been known since the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2600 BC) and continued to develop throughout ancient Egyptian history. Although mummification protected the body from decay, especially by microbes, some mummification techniques left the body susceptible to insect attack. Certain types of insects have been detected in the mummies. In scholarly publications, most authors have dealt with microorganisms, while few have concerned themselves in depth with the effect of insects on the mummies. This study aims to discuss the significance of insects and the changes they affected to the mummies during embalming. To achieve this goal, experiments were carried out replicating various mummification techniques using albino Wistar rats. Analysis and investigative techniques used included visual observation, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, investigation of the surface morphology by a scanning electron microscope, and color change by a spectrophotometer. The following insects could be identified as being present during the second and third processes of mummification: Dermestes maculatus, Necrobia rufipes, Saprinus gilvicornis, Chrysomya albiceps, Wohlfahrtia magnifica, and Attagenus fasciatus. In addition, the majority of our findings confirmed that the degradation by insects increased with the second and third methods of mummification. Finally, the experimental study conducted using the mummification techniques of the New Kingdom (ca. 1570-1070 BC) indicated that they were more resistant to insect attack than the other types.

Analytical study of Saint Gregory Nazianzen Icon, Old Cairo, Egypt

“…2A) as a flexible support for the paint layers and it is characteristic with ribbon-twisted structure that is remarkable to cotton fibers [26,27]. The fibers appear randomly with good distribution of the filler and the distance between fibers is very close [28]. There are tears due to the natural aging of fibers.…”

An Analytical Study for Understanding the Degradation Process of a Late Period Mummy

“…1). The mummies in the late period were characterized by the extensive use of resin in the body cavities, and there was more concern with the external appearance than the preservation of the body [2,5,14]. Intact fiber, powder fiber, and small bone (lumbar vertebra) samples were taken from the studied mummy.…”

“…Egyptian civilization is one of the earliest in history, and the ancient Egyptians recorded not only their writings but also their memories through mummification of their bodies. The ancient Egyptians believed in resurrection after death and made it necessary to preserve their bodies to the afterlife [1][2][3][4][5]. The mummification (artificial mummification) was practiced in Egypt from the Old Kingdom to the Christian era.…”

“…This was the main step in the mummification process due to the extraction of water from the body by the osmosis process. It depended on some factors such as the condition of the body prior to the Natron treatment, the compo-sition of the salt mixture, the ratio of Natron volume to body volume, the re-use of salts for more than one body, and the duration of treatment in regard to the climate conditions [1][2][3][4]. 4-Filling the thoracic and abdominal cavities with linen bags containing Natron salt, oils, and resin.…”

Identification of dermestid beetle modification on Neolithic Maltese human bone: Implications for funerary practices at the Xemxija tombs

“…This may be because softer materials such as paper and wood were more readily available, as providing pupation substrates is a common practice in the management of dermestid laboratory colonies to minimise mortality due to cannibalism (Fontenot et al 2015). Experimental studies on mummified rats in Egypt have shown conclusively that dermestid larvae excavate pupation chambers in dried tissues and bone (Abdel-Maksoud et al 2011). Dermestid pupal chambers usually occur in clusters and, when they appear on bones, may indicate a situation of stress with limited availability of both food and pupation substrates (Roberts et al 2003).…”