Comparative ecological and behavioral study of Macaca assamensis and M. mulatta in Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park, Nepal

Abstract

Resource partitioning reduces the competition between different species within the same habitat, promoting their coexistence.To understand how such species co-adapt to reduce conflicts, we examined the behavior of two primates, Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis) and rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), from April 2017 to March 2018 in Sivapuri Nagarjun National Park (SNNP), Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. We performed 1580 and 1261 scan sessions on wild multi-male/multi-female groups of Assamese and rhesus macaques, respectively, at 15-min sampling intervals. Assamese macaques consumed fewer plant species (38 species) than rhesus macaques (88 species). Overlapping food sources between the macaque species resulted in a Pianka index of 0.5. Assamese macaques consumed more items of tree, climber, and vine species, whereas rhesus macaques fed on more shrub, herb, and grass species. The proportions of plant parts consumed by the two species differed-more leaves, fruits and cones were used by Assamese macaques than rhesus macaques, whereas more flowers, seeds, and pods were consumed by rhesus macaques than Assamese macaques. Assamese macaques had a smaller home range (0.55 km 2 ) than rhesus macaques (4.23 km 2 ), and Assamese macaques had a shorter daily moving distance (1.6 km) than rhesus macaques (4.0 km). Although feeding time did not differ between the two macaque species, less time was devoted to social activities by Assamese macaques (16.0%) than by rhesus macaques (33.7%). Assamese macaques were generally arboreal, with 94.0% of their activities in trees, whereas rhesus macaques were largely terrestrial, with 58.5% of their activities on the ground. These differences in food selection, home-range size, ranging and activity patterns, and habitat use suggest that Assamese and rhesus macaques reduce resource competition through resource partitioning to coexist in a landscape matrix.

Current distribution of two species of Chinese macaques (Macaca arctoides and Macaca thibetana) and the possible influence of climate change on future distribution

“…Our model predicted that temperature range (bio7), annual precipitation (bio12), and land cover (forest) are the critical factors that influence the distribution of M. thibetana . Annual temperature and precipitation directly affect the food availability of primates and may eventually change their spatial distribution (Cui et al, 2019; Khatiwada et al, 2020; Kurihara & Hanya, 2015; Q. Zhao et al, 1991). M. thibetana feeds on different kinds of foods across seasons and changes its home range size seasonally with shifting food availability (Xiong & Wang, 1988; Q. Zhao & Deng, 1988; Q. Zhao et al, 1991).…”

“…These predictions are similar to those for other animals, such as antelopes (J. Zhang, Jiang et al, 2021; S. Zhang, Liu, et al, 2021) and the Sichuan snub‐nosed monkeys (Luo et al, 2015; X. Zhao et al, 2019). Animal migration to higher latitudes may enable them to adapt to high temperatures and land‐use changes (Estrada et al, 2017; X. Zhao et al, 2019), but inter‐specific competition may also influence species migration (Khatiwada et al, 2020; L. Sales et al, 2020). However, species diversity is expected to decrease with the increase in global temperature (Pecl et al, 2017).…”

Higher social tolerance is associated with more complex facial behavior in macaques

“…However, differences in facial mobility across terrestrial and non-terrestrial primates are not significant once body size is controlled for [13]. Furthermore, all three species included in this study have comparable levels of terrestriality, spending the majority (52-72%) of the time on the ground [43–45]. Spatial spread and predation pressure could potentially also influence the use of facial signals.…”

Dietary preference of Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis McClelland, 1840 (Mammalia: Primates: Cercopithecidae) in Dampa Tiger Reserve, India

“…Adaptation and alteration in dietary patterns account for the major ecological and behavioral differences among primate species especially in wild (Koirala et al 2017;Ghimire et al 2021). Dietary preference provides useful information on individual food species necessary for survival, insight into its level of dietary specialization, resource partitioning and also on monitoring strategies for threatened and elusive primates (Koirala & Chalise 2014;Koirala et al 2017;Khatiwada et al 2020). Assamese Macaque Macaca assamensis is one of the most widely distributed nonhuman primate species in southeastern Asia.…”

“…Their natural feeding items in the wild include fruits, leaves, seeds, flowers, buds, young shoots, twigs, barks, roots, and resin of gymnosperms (Chalise 1999;Koirala & Chalise 2014;Koirala et al 2017;Boonratana et al 2020;Khatiwada et al 2020;Ghimire et al 2021). They may also feed on faunal resources such as grasshoppers, earthworms and other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mollusks, and spiders (Schulke et al 2011;Hambali et al 2014;Nila et al 2014).…”