“…The health effects of urbanization are established in the literature (Brueckner, 2019;Jemiluyi, 2021) and the rate of urbanization has been rising in South Africa, with about twothird of the population residing in urban centers in 2021 (UN-Habitat, 2023). For the child health model, in addition to income and literacy level, we adopted two other significant drivers of child health in the country, namely immunization (IMMU) and adolescent pregnancy (ADOL) (Barnighausen, Bloom, Canning, & O'Brien, 2008;Noori, Proctor, Efevbera, & Oron, 2022).…”