Image-guided surgery (IGS) has been evolving since the early 1990s and is now used on a daily basis in the operating theater for spine surgery at many institutions. In the last 5 years, spinal IGS has greatly benefitted from important enhancements including portable intraoperative CT (iCT) coupled with high-speed computerized stereotactic navigation systems and optical-based camera tracking technology.
Historical PerspectiveCranial stereotaxy was developed by Kirschner in 1933, refined by Lars Leksell in 1949, and translated by Robert Brown and Theodore Roberts in 1979 into the Brown-Roberts-Wells stereotactic system. 21,24,28,35 Cranial stereotaxy employed frames that were attached to the skull for numerous surgical intracranial procedures including intraaxial and skull base tumor resection, vascular malformation resection, resection for epilepsy, and ablation and stimulation procedures for Parkinson's disease and other functional disorders. 3,4,11,12 Today, frame-based technology is used only for some cranial procedures in which the highest possible accuracy is needed. Frame-based cranial stereotaxy led to the development of frameless cranial stereotaxy. Frameless cranial stereotaxy, in turn, led to the development of spinal frameless stereotaxy, now referred to simply as IGS for both cranial and spinal procedures.
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Frame-Based and Frameless Spinal Stereotaxy ProceduresFor a period of time, frame-based spinal technology was used for the limited applications of stereotactic radiosurgery to treat spinal neoplasms. 25,32 Since the advent of frameless stereotactic radiosurgery procedures, framebased procedures are rarely, if ever, used. The "frameless stereotaxy" that we currently use is now referred to as spinal IGS. This technology utilizes 3D imaging reconstruction produced by iCT scanning, digital optical imaging systems, and high-speed computer processing. Instead of the attached frame previously used, this technology uses only a tracking device attached to the spine to create the 3D computerized tracking environment.As clinical applications for frameless spinal stereotaxy evolved, they were reported in the literature. In 1991, Nelson and Duwelius reported their novel application of iCT to facilitate sacral fixation.26 In 1993, Brodwater et al. described utilization of the microscope to evaluate lumbar spinal anatomy, creating an interest in the use of IGS for hardware placement. 6 In 1995, Kalfas and colleagues published their experience with IGS-based placement of pedicle screws in the lumbar spine, in what appears to be the initial application of spinal IGS for hardware placement. 17 In 1996, Foley and Smith published a paper presenting a broader clinical application of IGS technology to spine surgery procedures.9 Following these initial publications, IGS for spinal procedures in various regions of the spinal column were reported by surgeons from across the country. 2,5,15,20,38