Clinical Applications of Patient-Specific 3D Printed Models in Cardiovascular Disease: Current Status and Future Directions

Abstract

Three-dimensional (3D) printing has been increasingly used in medicine with applications in many different fields ranging from orthopaedics and tumours to cardiovascular disease. Realistic 3D models can be printed with different materials to replicate anatomical structures and pathologies with high accuracy. 3D printed models generated from medical imaging data acquired with computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging or ultrasound augment the understanding of complex anatomy and pathology, assist preoperative planning and simulate surgical or interventional procedures to achieve precision medicine for improvement of treatment outcomes, train young or junior doctors to gain their confidence in patient management and provide medical education to medical students or healthcare professionals as an effective training tool. This article provides an overview of patient-specific 3D printed models with a focus on the applications in cardiovascular disease including: 3D printed models in congenital heart disease, coronary artery disease, pulmonary embolism, aortic aneurysm and aortic dissection, and aortic valvular disease. Clinical value of the patient-specific 3D printed models in these areas is presented based on the current literature, while limitations and future research in 3D printing including bioprinting of cardiovascular disease are highlighted.

Optimization of Computed Tomography Angiography Protocols for Follow-Up Type B Aortic Dissection Patients by Using 3D Printed Model

“…This can be addressed by further studies when our printing capabilities meet these requirements. Despite this limitation, the current measurements are still acceptable and consistent with what has been reported in the literature regarding measurements of dimensional accuracy based on 3D printed static cardiovascular models [21]. Second, no contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) was measured.…”

“…Patient-specific 3D printed phantoms have been proven to be valuable in multiple medical applications [16][17][18][19][20][21]. In our previous study, we described how we developed a patient-specific 3D printed TBAD aortic model, and confirmed its accuracy in resembling the mechanical and radiological properties of in vivo imaging under CT scanning modalities [22].…”

Quantitative Assessment of 3D Printed Model Accuracy in Delineating Congenital Heart Disease

“…At present, the diagnosis of CHD is mainly based on two-dimensional (2D) images, using computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or echocardiography imaging; however, it is difficult to present the complex structure of CHD on traditional 2D or three-dimensional (3D) visualisation due to the wide variability of the pathologies [ 4 ]. This limitation of the method is overcome with 3D-printing technology, which has increasing applications in the medical field [ 5 , 6 , 7 ].…”

Quality Control in 3D Printing: Accuracy Analysis of 3D-Printed Models of Patient-Specific Anatomy

“…In addition, 3D-printed anatomical models were found to be advantageous in both preoperative patient communication and informed consent in complex aortic disease [ 10 ]. 3D printing technology also offers the possibility for cardiovascular bioprinting using biomaterials and living cells to create scaffolds or constructs for personalized medicine in cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular tissues (cardiac valves, epimyocardial patches, vascular conduits) [ 11 ]. Among the different applications for medical 3D printing mentioned above, production anatomical models (71%), followed by surgical guides and templates (25%), are currently dominating, whereas implants only account for <3% of prints [ 6 , 12 ].…”