Caffeine, Paraxanthine, Theophylline, and Theobromine Content in Human Milk

Abstract

This study aimed to assess the content of caffeine and its metabolites—paraxanthine, theophylline, and theobromine—in breast milk according to selected factors. Samples of human milk were collected from 100 women living in the east–northeast region of Poland. Information on the consumption of beverages and foods containing caffeine was collected using a 3 day food record. The determination of caffeine and its metabolite content was performed using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). This study research showed that more caffeine was found in the milk of women living in cities, with secondary education, aged 34–43, and also in milk from the 3rd and 4th lactation periods (p ≤ 0.05). Factors such as place of residence, level of education, age, and stage of lactation influenced the nutritional choices of breastfeeding women, which had an impact on the level of caffeine and its metabolites in breast milk. A positive correlation was found between the consumption of caffeine with food and drinks and its level in human milk.

Caffeine Concentrations in Human Milk Donated to a Human Milk Bank in Japan

“…The higher caffeine concentration in milk from donors with higher bacterial counts might be related to the participant's behavioral patterns. Purkiewicz studied a detailed 3-day caffeine intake history and reported that higher reported caffeine intake corresponded to higher caffeine concentration in human milk (Purkiewicz et al, 2022). In contrast, Escuder-Vieco et al (2014) reported that a lifestyle questionnaire is reliable for the assessment of illicit drug use by donors to a human milk bank; however, there are certain limitations regarding the disclosure of the consumption of caffeinated beverages.…”

“…Donor registration is possible one month postpartum, and many donors are several months postpartum. A study of 100 lactating women in Poland reported higher caffeine concentrations during the later postpartum period (Purkiewicz et al, 2022). We believe that the donors in our study were more likely to have increased caffeine intake because of the number of postpartum days.…”

“…We believe that the donors in our study were more likely to have increased caffeine intake because of the number of postpartum days. Purkiewicz et al reported that factors such as place of residence, level of education, age, and stage of lactation influenced the nutritional choices of breastfeeding women, which, in turn, had an effect on the levels of caffeine and its metabolites in human milk (Purkiewicz et al, 2022). It has also been reported that there is potential inter-individual variability in caffeine metabolism (Nehlig, 2018).…”

The Occurrence of Squalene in Human Milk and Infant Formula

“…Mother's milk is considered the gold standard in infant nutrition; due to its unique composition that adapts individually to the needs of the child, it is highly recommended that babies be fed only the mother's milk until the child is at least 6 months old [1,2]. Such a position is recommended by, amongst others, the American Academy of Pediatricians (AAP) and the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), who emphasize that breastfeeding reduces the risk of disease later in life [3].…”