Bioconversion, Pharmacokinetics, and Therapeutic Mechanisms of Ginsenoside Compound K and Its Analogues for Treating Metabolic Diseases

Abstract

Rare ginsenoside compound K (CK) is an intestinal microbial metabolite with a low natural abundance that is primarily produced by physicochemical processing, side chain modification, or metabolic transformation in the gut. Moreover, CK exhibits potent biological activity compared to primary ginsenosides, which has raised concerns in the field of ginseng research and development, as well as ginsenoside-related dietary supplements and natural products. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, and Rc are generally used as a substrate to generate CK via several bioconversion processes. Current research shows that CK has a wide range of pharmacological actions, including boosting osteogenesis, lipid and glucose metabolism, lipid oxidation, insulin resistance, and anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptosis properties. Further research on the bioavailability and toxicology of CK can advance its medicinal application. The purpose of this review is to lay the groundwork for future clinical studies and the development of CK as a therapy for metabolic disorders. Furthermore, the toxicology and pharmacology of CK are investigated as well in this review. The findings indicate that CK primarily modulates signaling pathways associated with AMPK, SIRT1, PPARs, WNTs, and NF-kB. It also demonstrates a positive therapeutic effect of CK on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and its complications, as well as osteoporosis. Additionally, the analogues of CK showed more bioavailability, less toxicity, and more efficacy against disease states. Enhancing bioavailability and regulating hazardous variables are crucial for its use in clinical trials.

Potassium and Magnesium in American Ginseng Roots as Key Factors in Monitoring Soil Quality, Yield, and Quality: Screening, Prediction, and Validation

“…TP was observed to be a descending type of affiliation function (Figure S1). The affiliation values were determined by substituting the raw data into Equations ( 4) and (5). Based on Equation (3), the SQI values (Figure 3U) were calculated for each sampling point.…”

“…Currently, China is the largest consumer of American ginseng and the third-largest producer worldwide [2]. Ginsenosides are the most well-known active ingredients of American ginseng and have various pharmacological activities, namely, improving immunity, preventing certain tumours, exerting anti-inflammatory effects, and delaying aging [3][4][5].…”