Beyond Tethering the Viral Particles: Immunomodulatory Functions of Tetherin (BST-2)

Abstract

Host response to viral infection is a highly regulated process involving engagement of various host factors, cytokines, chemokines, and stimulatory signals that pave the way for an antiviral immune response. The response is manifested in terms of viral sequestration, phagocytosis, and inhibition of genome replication, and, finally, if required, lymphocyte-mediated clearance of virally infected cells. During this process, cross-talk between viral and host factors can shape disease outcomes and immunopathology. Bone marrow stromal antigen 2 (BST-2), also know as tetherin, is induced by type I interferon produced in response to viral infections, as well as in certain cancers. BST-2 has been shown to be a host restriction factor of virus multiplication through its ability to physically tether budding virions and restrict viral spread. However, BST-2 has other roles in the host antiviral response. This review focuses on the diverse functions of BST-2 and its downstream signaling pathways in regulating host immune responses.

Blood single cell immune profiling reveals the interferon-MAPK pathway mediated adaptive immune response for COVID-19

“…These results suggest that IRF27 is a candidate marker gene for SARS-CoV-2 infection. BST2 , which was previously shown to play a role in pre-B-cell growth ( 31 ), also showed up-expression in COVID-19 patients. Consistent with our single cell transcription data, the expression profile of FOS , which is a transcription factor mediating MAPK pathway signaling, showed up-regulation in COVID-19 patients but down-regulation in cured patients.…”

Structural similarity-based prediction of host factors associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathogenesis

“…The viral S protein also interacts with a host antiviral protein; bone marrow stromal antigen 2 (BST-2), which is known to inhibit release of nascent virion from the cell. The BST-2 is a well-defined antiviral protein that tethers many enveloped viruses release like HIV1/2, Dengue, HCV, VSV, etc (Tiwari et al., 2019 ).…”

Tumour‐associated CD204+ microglia/macrophages accumulate in perivascular and perinecrotic niches and correlate with an interleukin‐6‐enriched inflammatory profile in glioblastoma

“…mRNA gene expression analysis was performed using the NanoString barcode technology (NanoString Technologies, Seattle, WA, USA) with the NanoString nCounter® Human Myeloid Innate Immunity Panel v2 consisting of 770 genes and a customised CodeSet of 30 genes which was spiked into the standard myeloid panel. The customised 30‐gene panel included the genes for CD204 ( MSR1 ), the immune checkpoint marker galectin‐9 (GAL9, LGALS9 ) [ 46 ], 26 genes related to cancer stemness [ 18 , 19 , 47 , 48 ], glioma [ 1 , 7 ], chemoresistance [ 15 , 49 ] or the interferon pathway [ 50 , 51 , 52 ] as well as two additional housekeeping genes [ 53 , 54 ] ( File S1 ). Total RNA input was 150–250 ng with an A260/280 optical density between 1.61 and 1.99.…”