Are spotted skunks conspicuous or cryptic?

Caro, Timothy; Stankowich, Theodore; Kiffner, Christian; Hunter, J. F.

doi:10.1080/03949370.2012.744359

Cited by 29 publications

(27 citation statements)

References 49 publications

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“…Examples include Vipera snakes (Valkonen et al, ), some butterfly larvae (Tullberg, Merilaita & Wiklund, ; Bohlin, Tullberg & Merilaita, ) and spotted skunks ( Spilogale spp. ), which are difficult to detect unless viewed closely (Caro et al, ). Thus, prey coloration is not always exclusively cryptic or aposematic, but rather forms a continuum between camouflage and warning coloration, which can be manipulated to the prey's advantage.…”

Section: Predation and Signal Variationmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Aposematic research has, for the past century, focused predominantly on terrestrial insects and their avian predators, possibly due to the tractability of these systems. However, examples of aposematic colour and pattern variation in other taxa such as birds (Dumbacher et al, , ) and mammals (Hunter, ; Stankowich, Caro & Cox, ; Caro et al, ) have more recently been revealed. Warning‐signal variation in several marine species has also begun to be investigated (Hanlon & Messenger, ; Cortesi & Cheney, ; Winters et al, ), although the aposematic function of conspicuous coloration in aquatic environments has been questioned.…”

Section: Taxonomic Occurrence Of Warning‐signal Polymorphismmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…However, examples of aposematic colour and pattern variation in other taxa such as birds (Dumbacher et al, 1992(Dumbacher et al, , 2008 and mammals (Hunter, 2009;Stankowich, Caro & Cox, 2011;Caro et al, 2013) have more recently been revealed. Warning-signal variation in several marine species has also begun to be investigated (Hanlon & Messenger, 1998;Cortesi & Cheney, 2010;Winters et al, 2017), although the aposematic function of conspicuous coloration in aquatic environments has been questioned.…”

Section: Density and Aggregationmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm?

et al. 2018

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Aposematic theory has historically predicted that predators should select for warning signals to converge on a single form, as a result of frequency‐dependent learning. However, widespread variation in warning signals is observed across closely related species, populations and, most problematically for evolutionary biologists, among individuals in the same population. Recent research has yielded an increased awareness of this diversity, challenging the paradigm of signal monomorphy in aposematic animals. Here we provide a comprehensive synthesis of these disparate lines of investigation, identifying within them three broad classes of explanation for variation in aposematic warning signals: genetic mechanisms, differences among predators and predator behaviour, and alternative selection pressures upon the signal. The mechanisms producing warning coloration are also important. Detailed studies of the genetic basis of warning signals in some species, most notably Heliconius butterflies, are beginning to shed light on the genetic architecture facilitating or limiting key processes such as the evolution and maintenance of polymorphisms, hybridisation, and speciation. Work on predator behaviour is changing our perception of the predator community as a single homogenous selective agent, emphasising the dynamic nature of predator–prey interactions. Predator variability in a range of factors (e.g. perceptual abilities, tolerance to chemical defences, and individual motivation), suggests that the role of predators is more complicated than previously appreciated. With complex selection regimes at work, polytypisms and polymorphisms may even occur in Müllerian mimicry systems. Meanwhile, phenotypes are often multifunctional, and thus subject to additional biotic and abiotic selection pressures. Some of these selective pressures, primarily sexual selection and thermoregulation, have received considerable attention, while others, such as disease risk and parental effects, offer promising avenues to explore. As well as reviewing the existing evidence from both empirical studies and theoretical modelling, we highlight hypotheses that could benefit from further investigation in aposematic species. Finally by collating known instances of variation in warning signals, we provide a valuable resource for understanding the taxonomic spread of diversity in aposematic signalling and with which to direct future research. A greater appreciation of the extent of variation in aposematic species, and of the selective pressures and constraints which contribute to this once‐paradoxical phenomenon, yields a new perspective for the field of aposematic signalling.

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Section: Predation and Signal Variationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Taxonomic Occurrence Of Warning‐signal Polymorphismmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Density and Aggregationmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm?

et al. 2018

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“…For intermediately defended species, maximizing conspicuousness may not maximize survival and, instead, animals should balance signal efficacy with predator encounter rates [10 -12]. It has been suggested that pattern elements, in addition to promoting recognition and memorability, can interact with the background and one another to reduce detectability [13][14][15][16][17]. However, the role of pattern, rather than colour saturation, in reducing detectability and signalling defence strength has not been investigated in much detail [3].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Aposematism: balancing salience and camouflage

2016

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Aposematic signals are often characterized by high conspicuousness. Larger and brighter signals reinforce avoidance learning, distinguish defended from palatable prey and are more easily memorized by predators. Conspicuous signalling, however, has costs: encounter rates with naive, specialized or nutritionally stressed predators are likely to increase. It has been suggested that intermediate levels of aposematic conspicuousness can evolve to balance deterrence and detectability, especially for moderately defended species. The effectiveness of such signals, however, has not yet been experimentally tested under field conditions. We used dough caterpillar-like baits to test whether reduced levels of aposematic conspicuousness can have survival benefits when predated by wild birds in natural conditions. Our results suggest that, when controlling for the number and intensity of internal contrast boundaries (stripes), a reduced-conspicuousness aposematic pattern can have a survival advantage over more conspicuous signals, as well as cryptic colours. Furthermore, we find a survival benefit from the addition of internal contrast for both high and low levels of conspicuousness. This adds ecological validity to evolutionary models of aposematic saliency and the evolution of honest signalling.

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“…frogs (11)(12)(13). Consequently, maximizing detectability is not necessarily the optimal strategy for preventing predation, and defended species may benefit from incorporating aspects of camouflage into their coloration (14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Distance-dependent defensive coloration in the poison frog Dendrobates tinctorius , Dendrobatidae

Barnett

Michalis

Scott‐Samuel

et al. 2018

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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Poison dart frogs provide classic examples of warning signals: potent toxins signaled by distinctive, conspicuous coloration. We show that, counterintuitively, the bright yellow and blue-black color of (Dendrobatidae) also provides camouflage. Through computational modeling of predator vision, and a screen-based detection experiment presenting frogs at different spatial resolutions, we demonstrate that at close range the frog is highly detectable, but from a distance the colors blend together, forming effective camouflage. This result was corroborated with an in situ experiment, which found survival to be background-dependent, a feature more associated with camouflage than aposematism. Our results suggest that in the distribution of pattern elements, and the particular colors expressed, act as a highly salient close range aposematic signal, while simultaneously minimizing detectability to distant observers.

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Are spotted skunks conspicuous or cryptic?

Cited by 29 publications

References 49 publications

Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm?

Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm?

Aposematism: balancing salience and camouflage

Distance-dependent defensive coloration in the poison frog Dendrobates tinctorius , Dendrobatidae

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