Agroecosystem resilience and farmers’ perceptions of climate change impacts on cocoa farms in Alto Beni, Bolivia

Abstract

Cocoa-based small-scale agriculture is the most important source of income for most farming families in the region of Alto Beni in the sub-humid foothills of the Andes. Cocoa is grown in cultivation systems of varying ecological complexity. The plantations are highly susceptible to climate change impacts. Local cocoa producers mention heat waves, droughts, floods and plant diseases as the main impacts affecting plants and working conditions, and they associate these impacts with global climate change. From a sustainable regional development point of view, cocoa farms need to become more resilient in order to cope with the climate change related effects that are putting cocoa-based livelihoods at risk. This study assesses agroecosystem resilience under three different cocoa cultivation systems (successional agroforestry, simple agroforestry and common practice monocultures). In a first step, farmers’ perceptions of climate change impacts were assessed and eight indicators of agroecological resilience were derived in a transdisciplinary process (focus groups and workshop) based on farmers’ and scientists’ knowledge. These indicators (soil organic matter, depth of Ah horizon, soil bulk density, tree species diversity, crop varieties diversity, ant species diversity, cocoa yields and infestation of cocoa trees with Moniliophthora perniciosa) were then surveyed on 15 cocoa farms and compared for the three different cultivation systems. Parts of the socio-economic aspects of resilience were covered by evaluating the role of cocoa cooperatives and organic certification in transitioning to more resilient cocoa farms (interviews with 15 cocoa farmers combined with five expert interviews). Agroecosystem resilience was higher under the two agroforestry systems than under common practice monoculture, especially under successional agroforestry. Both agroforestry systems achieved higher cocoa yields than common practice monoculture due to agroforestry farmers’ enhanced knowledge regarding cocoa cultivation. Knowledge sharing was promoted by local organizations facilitating organic certification. These organizations were thus found to enhance the social process of farmers’ integration into cooperatives and their reorientation toward organic principles and diversified agroforestry.

Beyond yields: Climate change effects on specialty crop quality and agroecological management

“…Numerous previous studies have highlighted that agricultural diversification strategies are crucial for resilience (Tscharntke et al, 2011;Jacobi et al, 2015;Lin, 2011;Vandermeer et al, 1998;Yachi and Loreau, 1999). Different species or genotypes within an agroecosystem may perform different functions (Vandermeer et al, 1998) and have different physiological thresholds in response to climate variability (Yachi and Loreau, 1999) and thus enhance the resilience of an ecosystem (Walker, 1995) or agroecosystem.…”

Farm Resilience in Organic and Nonorganic Cocoa Farming Systems in Alto Beni, Bolivia

“…By the term "organic" we mean certified organic (according to U.S. Department of Agriculture and European Union standards), and by the term "nonorganic," we mean without organic certification, regardless of agroecological farming techniques. Different factors such as plant diseases and particularly the impacts of climate change are rendering cocoa cultivation increasingly challenging in Alto Beni (Jacobi et al 2013), since cocoa trees are highly susceptible to climate variability (Anim-Kwapong and Frimpong 2006). Cocoa producers in Alto Beni mention-in line with local climate data periods of extreme heat and an extended dry season as well as more periods with excessive rainfall (Jacobi et al 2013).…”

“…Different factors such as plant diseases and particularly the impacts of climate change are rendering cocoa cultivation increasingly challenging in Alto Beni (Jacobi et al 2013), since cocoa trees are highly susceptible to climate variability (Anim-Kwapong and Frimpong 2006). Cocoa producers in Alto Beni mention-in line with local climate data periods of extreme heat and an extended dry season as well as more periods with excessive rainfall (Jacobi et al 2013). This study analyzes the social-ecological resilience of organic and nonorganic cocoa farms with a view to adapting cocoa production to the rapidly changing socioeconomic and climatic conditions.…”

“…We argue that adaptive capacity is also defined by actors' freedom to determine the modalities of their development following their own criteria, habits, values, and ethical standards in the sense of Amartya Sen (1999). This implies that buffer capacity should be built by self-defined adaptation measures to climate change (see also Jacobi et al 2013).…”

“…We determined resilience indicators based on the results of a prestudy with three focus group discussions and a participatory workshop of one day with 30 cocoa producers (Jacobi et al 2013). The workshop followed an interactive methodology for the evaluation of risks and exploration of adaptation options by the Livelihood and Forestry Programme Nepal ([LFP] 2010).…”