Addressing the global snakebite crisis with geo-spatial analyses – Recent advances and future direction

Abstract

Venomous snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that annually leads to hundreds of thousands of deaths or long-term physical and mental ailments across the developing world. Insufficient data on spatial variation in snakebite risk, incidence, human vulnerability, and accessibility of medical treatment contribute substantially to ineffective on-ground management. There is an urgent need to collect data, fill knowledge gaps and address on-ground management problems. The use of novel, and transdisciplinary approaches that take advantage of recent advances in spatio-temporal models, ‘big data’, high performance computing, and fine-scale spatial information can add value to snakebite management by strategically improving our understanding and mitigation capacity of snakebite. We review the background and recent advances on the topic of snakebite related geospatial analyses and suggest avenues for priority research that will have practical on-ground applications for snakebite management and mitigation. These include streamlined, targeted data collection on snake distributions, snakebites, envenomings, venom composition, health infrastructure, and antivenom accessibility along with fine-scale models of spatio-temporal variation in snakebite risk and incidence, intraspecific venom variation, and environmental change modifying human exposure. These measures could improve and ‘future-proof’ antivenom production methods, antivenom distribution and stockpiling systems, and human-wildlife conflict management practices, while simultaneously feeding into research on venom evolution, snake taxonomy, ecology, biogeography, and conservation.

Estimating and predicting snakebite risk in the Terai region of Nepal through a high-resolution geospatial and One Health approach

“…However, better understanding of the factors influencing that risk at the most granular scale possible, and the estimation of the populations at risk, can help to better target prevention and mitigation measures. For humans, this evidence can channel efforts towards improved access to treatment through the optimized stockpiling of antivenom, and the improvement, relocation or new construction of treating facilities, but more importantly, towards community education and sensitization in preventive campaigns 51 . Part of that preventive and educative efforts can be done at household level, by promoting and facilitating the use of protective equipment such as rubber boots, or the guidance on how to improve and adapt their immediate surroundings to make them ecologically less attractive for snakes and their prey.…”

“…Two binary response variables, one for humans, and one for domestic animals, identified snakebite cases in the last 12 months (from the survey date) and defined the two main models (human and animal). Snakebite risk is defined as the theoretical probability of encountering and being bitten by a snake 51 . We considered this probability within a period of 12 months, either for a household member in the estimation model, or for anyone in a specific area of 1 km 2 in the geospatial prediction model.…”

“…We considered this probability within a period of 12 months, either for a household member in the estimation model, or for anyone in a specific area of 1 km 2 in the geospatial prediction model. In addition, snakebite risk can be measured as the likelihood of exposure to a snake (presence and abundance) times the likelihood of an encounter leading to a bite 51 . Considering the impossibility of measuring snake abundance at national scale, in this study we regressed snakebite incidence on multiple environmental and socio-economic factors to find that theoretical probability.…”

Estimating Snakebite Risk in the Terai, Nepal: A High-Resolution Geospatial and One Health Analysis

“…Snakebite risk is de ned as the theoretical probability of encountering and being bitten by a snake. 46 We considered this probability within a period of 12 months, either for a household member in the estimation model, or for anyone in a speci c area of 1 km 2 in the geospatial prediction model. In addition, snakebite risk can be measured as the likelihood of exposure to a snake (presence and abundance) times the likelihood of an encounter leading to a bite.…”

“…For humans, this evidence can channel efforts towards improved access to treatment through the optimized stockpiling of antivenom, and the improvement, relocation or new construction of treating facilities, but more importantly, towards community education and sensitization in preventive campaigns. 46 For domestic animals, this information could help better target awareness-raising activities for animal owners and implement mitigation strategies. For animals at higher risk, tailored interventions such as the improvement of housing conditions, regular cleaning of sheds and surrounding areas (e.g., from food waste and surrounding vegetation), and using light when animals are walked out of the enclosure at night could be deployed speci cally as snakebite prevention measures.…”