Adaptive immune responses and cytokine immune profiles in humans following prime and boost vaccination with the SARS-CoV-2 CoronaVac vaccine

Abstract

Background Adaptive immune response has been thought to play a key role in SARS-CoV-2 infection. The role of B cells, CD4+T, and CD8+T cells are different in vaccine-induced immune response, thus it is imperative to explore the functions and kinetics of adaptive immune response. We collected blood samples from unvaccinated and vaccinated individuals. To assess the mechanisms contributing to protective immunity of CoronaVac vaccines, we mapped the kinetics and durability of humoral and cellular immune responses after primary and boost vaccination with CoronaVac vaccine in different timepoints. Materials and methods We separate PBMC and plasma from blood samples. The differentiation and function of RBD-spcific CD4+T and CD8+T cells were analyzed by flow cytometry and ELISA. Antibodies response was analyzed by ELISA. ELISPOT analysis was perfomed to detected the RBD-spcific memory B cells. CBA analysis was performed to detected the cytokine immune profiles. Graphpad prism 8 and Origin 2021 were used for statistical analysis. Results Vaccine-induced CD4+T cell responses to RBD were more prominent than CD8+T cell responses, and characterized by a predominant Th1 and weak Th17 helper response. CoronaVac vaccine triggered predominant IgG1 antibody response and effectively recalled specific antibodies to RBD protein after booster vaccination. Robust antigen-specific memory B cells were detected (p < 0.0001) following booster vaccination and maintained at 6 months (p < 0.0001) following primary vaccination. Vaccine-induced CD4+T cells correlated with CD8+T cells (r = 0.7147, 0.3258, p < 0.0001, p = 0.04), memory B cell responses (r = 0.7083, p < 0.0001), and IgG and IgA (r = 0.6168, 0.5519, p = 0.0006, 0.003) after vaccination. In addition, vaccine induced a broader and complex cytokine pattern in plasma at early stage. Conclusion Taken together, these results highlight the potential role of B cell and T cell responses in vaccine-induced long-term immunity.

Vaccinomics-based next-generation multi-epitope chimeric vaccine models prediction against Leishmania tropica - a hierarchical subtractive proteomics and immunoinformatics approach

“…Moreover, the development of natural killer cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages was also predicted to sustain growth after each immunization ( Figures 9F–H ). Vaccine dosages are commonly reported to stimulate the release of a variety of cytokines, including IFN-gamma, IL-23 (interleukin-23), IL-10, and IFN-beta, that eventually promote an immune response against infection ( 65 , 66 ). In the case of the proposed construct-IV, significantly elevated levels of cytokines and interleukins, including IFN-γ and TGF-B, were predicted after continuous antigen exposure during immunization periods, while the other cytokines present lower concentration detection ( Figure 9I ).…”

Dynamic antibody response in SARS-CoV-2 infected patients and COVID-19 vaccine recipients alongside vaccine effectiveness in comorbid and multimorbid groups

“…Statins and metformin have been reported to impair the antibody response and efficacy of vaccines [ 59 , 60 ], and information on these administrations was also lacking. Previous research identified CD4 + T cells as the hallmark of a vaccine-induced SARS-CoV-2–specific T cell response [ 61 , 62 ], in particular TNF-α and IL-2 producing CD4 + T cells [ 63 ]. Therefore, in addition to analyzing humoral responses, an evaluation of T cell responses in these immunosuppressed patients would have been crucial for better understanding the immunological responses to vaccination and previous infections; however, our study design precluded this investigation.…”

Clinical Application of In Vitro Tests for COVID-19 Vaccine Delayed Hypersensitivity Diagnostics

“…In our opinion, it might be more evident in vaccines that activate the immune system as their primary mechanism. A rise in the number of these cytokines has been observed post-vaccination when using such vaccines as influenza and COVID-19 and might be more evident in subjects who have already had contact with either virus or their first dose of a vaccine [27,28]. With the ongoing high COVID-19 transmission in 2022, it was difficult to evaluate individuals' exposure [29].…”