“…To improve the aerodynamic performance of vehicles, a numerous studies on active flow control (AFC) for the turbulent shear layers have been conducted in recent decades, such as steady jet blowing (Littlewood & Passmore 2012;Zhang et al 2018a), synthetic jets (Minelli et al 2019(Minelli et al , 2020, pulsed jets (Joseph, Amandolese & Aider 2012;Joseph et al 2013), steady suction and blowing (Rouméas, Gilliéron & Kourta 2009;Prakash, Bergada & Mellibovsky 2018;Cerutti et al 2020), and plasma actuators (Shadmani et al 2018;Kim, Do & Choi 2020). This is because AFC not only achieves the comprehensive improvement on energy saving, running safety and ride comfort (Minelli et al 2017), but also enables the feedback or closed-loop control on the separated flow around vehicles (Brunton & Noack 2015;Amico, Cafiero & Iuso 2022a).…”