A multidimensional study of gender typing in preschool children and their parents: Personality, attitudes, preferences, behavior, and cultural differences.

Abstract

Multiple measures of gender typing were obtained from parents and their 4-year-old children in England (n = 97) and in Hungary (n = 64). Different aspects of children's gender typing were associated with different parental factors. Results were consistent with differential gender typing for the cognitive measures (stereotype knowledge and flexibility), but for the behavioral measures (interactional and play styles), contrary to predictions, effects were in the same direction for both sexes. For boys, but not for girls, findings were coherent across the different domains (behavior, preferences, and stereotype knowledge). Results for fathers were more consistent than those for mothers. Finally, fathers with daughters were more "feminine" and less sex biased than fathers with sons. Replication across the 2 cultures was substantial, and despite mean differences, the patterns of associations among measures were similar.The primary aim of this s|udy was to investigate the nature and extent of parental influences oa-gender differentiation in young children. Gender is one of the first, and perhaps most salient, distinctions that children make in classifying others and is crucially important for self-concept development. From an early age, children learn that there are two categories of persons (male and female) and that they themselves belong to one or the other (e.g., Thompson, 1975;Weinraub et al., 1984). In addition to developing an understanding of gender labeling and gender identity, children develop awareness of sex stereotypes. Stereotyping of toys and objects has been shown in some chil-

Preschoolers’ Perceptions of Gender Appropriate Toys and their Parents’ Beliefs About Genderized Behaviors: Miscommunication, Mixed Messages, or Hidden Truths?

“…This line of inquiry has documented that while the current generation of girls is more likely to be encouraged to do things that were once considered masculine than were their mothers, the past 20 years has seen both children and adults narrow their definitions of appropriate behavior for boys (Burge, 1981;Cahill & Adams, 1997;Fisher-Thompson, 1990;Martin, 1990;Moulton & Adams-Price, 1997;Turner & Gervai, 1995).…”

Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: The Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire

“…Fathers tend to be more gender-stereotypical than mothers in their activities with children (Turner & Gervai, 1995), and may allow more opportunities for cuddling with daughters than sons (Snow, Jacklin, & Maccoby, 1983). Fathers' greater preference for rough-and-tumble games with boys (Eccles, Freedman-Doan, Frome, Jacobs, & Yoon, 2000) may also limit engagement in the kinds of play likely to elicit demonstrations of sociability from boys.…”

Gender Socialization

“…Some preliminary work indicates that such efforts could be fruitful (e.g., Fast, 1984Fast, , 1993Schore, 1994), but clearly, much more remains to be done. In addition, the majority of contemporary research and theorizing has focused on the United States and Western Europe (but see Berndt, Cheung, Lau, Kit-Tai Hau, &Lew, 1993 andTurner andGervai, 1995 for exceptions) with surprisingly little systematic comparisons across racial-ethnic and social class groups even there. Much more extensive comparative and cross-cultural work is clearly needed.…”

“…This has been demonstrated both through an older body of research in the tradition of "masculinity-femininity" tests (Constaninople, 1973;Lewis, 1968, pp. 69-71;Stockard & Johnson, 1992, p. 153) and in newer studies of children's gender-typed behavior and personalities and developing gender schemas (Hort, Leinbach, & Fagot, 1991;Sears, Rau, & Alpert, 1965;Turner & Gervai, 1995). One carefully designed study used longitudinal data collected on children beginning at the age of 18 months and continuing until the age of 4.…”