The parakeet Brotogeris tirica feeds on and disperses the fruits of the palm Syagrus romanzoffiana in Southeastern Brazil

Sazima, Iván

doi:10.1590/s1676-06032008000100026

Cited by 15 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 6 publications

(10 reference statements)

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“…), have gone overlooked. Stomatochory by parrots has also been previously recorded (Symes and Perrin ; Sazima ; Tella et al. ), even as a major dispersal mode with parrots as the sole or primary dispersers of particular species (Boehning‐Gaese et al.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 86%

Parrots as key multilinkers in ecosystem structure and functioning

Blanco

Hiraldo

Rojas

et al. 2015

Ecology and Evolution

128

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Mutually enhancing organisms can become reciprocal determinants of their distribution, abundance, and demography and thus influence ecosystem structure and dynamics. In addition to the prevailing view of parrots (Psittaciformes) as plant antagonists, we assessed whether they can act as plant mutualists in the dry tropical forest of the Bolivian inter‐Andean valleys, an ecosystem particularly poor in vertebrate frugivores other than parrots (nine species). We hypothesised that if interactions between parrots and their food plants evolved as primarily or facultatively mutualistic, selection should have acted to maximize the strength of their interactions by increasing the amount and variety of resources and services involved in particular pairwise and community–wide interaction contexts. Food plants showed different growth habits across a wide phylogenetic spectrum, implying that parrots behave as super‐generalists exploiting resources differing in phenology, type, biomass, and rewards from a high diversity of plants (113 species from 38 families). Through their feeding activities, parrots provided multiple services acting as genetic linkers, seed facilitators for secondary dispersers, and plant protectors, and therefore can be considered key mutualists with a pervasive impact on plant assemblages. The number of complementary and redundant mutualistic functions provided by parrots to each plant species was positively related to the number of different kinds of food extracted from them. These mutually enhancing interactions were reflected in species‐level properties (e.g., biomass or dominance) of both partners, as a likely consequence of the temporal convergence of eco‐(co)evolutionary dynamics shaping the ongoing structure and organization of the ecosystem. A full assessment of the, thus far largely overlooked, parrot–plant mutualisms and other ecological linkages could change the current perception of the role of parrots in the structure, organization, and functioning of ecosystems.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 86%

Parrots as key multilinkers in ecosystem structure and functioning

Blanco

Hiraldo

Rojas

et al. 2015

Ecology and Evolution

128

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“…3). Importantly, as recorded for the congeneric monkey puzzle tree Araucaria araucana 10 and other plant species89173940, parrots can act as primary dispersers by moving most seeds long distances (hundreds of meters), which can have a pervasive influence in the genetic structure of populations. Genetic mapping of all living trees showed the realized dispersal of seeds within a 7.2 ha plot of Parana pine forest, dispersal reaching 318 m with 50% of seeds being dispersed up to 133 m41.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Endangered plant-parrot mutualisms: seed tolerance to predation makes parrots pervasive dispersers of the Parana pine

Tella

Dénes

Zulian

et al. 2016

Sci Rep

107

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Parrots are largely considered plant antagonists as they usually destroy the seeds they feed on. However, there is evidence that parrots may also act as seed dispersers. We evaluated the dual role of parrots as predators and dispersers of the Critically Endangered Parana pine (Araucaria angustifolia). Eight of nine parrot species predated seeds from 48% of 526 Parana pines surveyed. Observations of the commonest parrot indicated that 22.5% of the picked seeds were dispersed by carrying them in their beaks. Another five parrot species dispersed seeds, at an estimated average distance of c. 250 m. Dispersal distances did not differ from those observed in jays, considered the main avian dispersers. Contrary to jays, parrots often dropped partially eaten seeds. Most of these seeds were handled by parrots, and the proportion of partially eaten seeds that germinated was higher than that of undamaged seeds. This may be explained by a predator satiation effect, suggesting that the large seeds of the Parana pine evolved to attract consumers for dispersal. This represents a thus far overlooked key plant-parrot mutualism, in which both components are threatened with extinction. The interaction is becoming locally extinct long before the global extinction of the species involved.

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“…As consumers of the fruits of trees, parrots may play a role in seed dispersal, although this mainly involves smaller, more frugivorous parrot species which consume small-sized fruits that are also dispersed by a number of other vertebrates (Fleming et al 1985;Barros and Marcondes-Machado 2000;Sazima 2008;Oliviera et al 2012). Passage through the parrot gizzard may damage a large number of seeds (Janzen 1981), leading to a low (27 %) germination of seeds defecated by parrots (Oliviera et al 2012).…”

Section: Functional Role Of Parrotsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The foraging activity of larger parrot species may also serve in primary or endozoochorous seed dispersal (Boehning-Gaese et al 1999;Symes and Perrin 2003b;Young et al 2012). Parrots have been recorded carrying fruits away from the mother tree on 44-45 % of occasions, and 15 % of the time these were dropped in flight (Symes and Perrin 2003b;Sazima 2008). In particular, the Black Parrot (Coracopsis nigra) in Madagascar is the main primary disperser of the tree Commiphora guillaumin, and while parrots may disperse only 7.9 % of seeds away from the crown, these have a 35-fold higher probability of becoming established as seedlings (Boehning-Gaese et al 1999).…”

Section: Functional Role Of Parrotsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Resource requirements of parrots: nest site selectivity and dietary plasticity of Psittaciformes

et al. 2015

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Parrots (Order Psittaciformes) are secondary cavity-nesters that depend on existing cavities for nest sites, and consume plant resources of fruits, seeds, and flowers that are highly variable, but little is known of resource selectivity by parrots, or how they deal with variable environments. We reviewed published studies of nest-cavity use by parrots, and those evaluating parrot diet and their relationship with food resources. Most studies have been conducted within the last 20 years and these present data on resource use for only one-third of parrot species worldwide. However, basic information on resource requirements is lacking for the vast majority of Psittaciformes, particularly for species from the Asian region. Nesting studies have found that parrots use nest cavities in large trees, high above the ground, with large nest chambers, of 0.5-1 m deep, and entrance diameters related to body size of the parrot species. A few studies demonstrate that parrots select nest sites based on cavity characteristics, which may influence nest success, but a complete evaluation of adaptive nest site selection by Psittaciformes is lacking. Parrots have varied diets and may employ a combination of strategies of diet switching, habitat shifts, and movements to track food resources. This plasticity in diet and foraging strategy may influence the extent to which parrots can respond to anthropogenic pressures of global change. Parrots may also play an important functional role in forest ecosystems, yet little is currently known of plant-animal interactions of parrots, or the impact of parrot populations on forest dynamics. Based on our review of the literature, we suggest that to meet their resource requirements, parrots employ resource selection strategies of hierarchical nest site selection to increase the likelihood of nest success, and plasticity in diet and foraging strategy to track variable food resources. Future studies need to evaluate resource selection and the consequences of this for fitness in order to assess the potential impacts of global change on parrot populations, and to identify characteristics which make species vulnerable to human pressures.

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The parakeet Brotogeris tirica feeds on and disperses the fruits of the palm Syagrus romanzoffiana in Southeastern Brazil

Cited by 15 publications

References 6 publications

Parrots as key multilinkers in ecosystem structure and functioning

Parrots as key multilinkers in ecosystem structure and functioning

Endangered plant-parrot mutualisms: seed tolerance to predation makes parrots pervasive dispersers of the Parana pine

Resource requirements of parrots: nest site selectivity and dietary plasticity of Psittaciformes

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