Acrylamide in food: Progress in and prospects for genetic and agronomic solutions

Abstract

Acrylamide is a processing contaminant and Group 2a carcinogen that was discovered in foodstuffs in 2002. Its presence in a range of popular foods has become one of the most difficult problems facing the food industry and its supply chain. Wheat, rye and potato products are major sources of dietary acrylamide, with biscuits, breakfast cereals, bread (particularly toasted), crispbread, batter, cakes, pies, French fries, crisps and snack products all affected. Here we briefly review the history of the issue, detection methods, the levels of acrylamide in popular foods and the risk that dietary acrylamide poses to human health. The pathways for acrylamide formation from free (non‐protein) asparagine are described, including the role of reducing sugars such as glucose, fructose and maltose and the Maillard reaction. The evolving regulatory situation in the European Union and elsewhere is discussed, noting that food businesses and their suppliers must plan to comply not only with current regulations but with possible future regulatory scenarios. The main focus of the review is on the genetic and agronomic approaches being developed to reduce the acrylamide‐forming potential of potatoes and cereals and these are described in detail, including variety selection, plant breeding, biotechnology and crop management. Obvious targets for genetic interventions include asparagine synthetase genes, and the asparagine synthetase gene families of different crop species are compared. Current knowledge on crop management best practice is described, including maintaining optimum storage conditions for potatoes and ensuring sulphur sufficiency and disease control for wheat.

Acrylamide Toxicity and Mitigation Strategies: A Summary of Recent Reports

“…[13][14][15][16] According to recent reports, acrylamide has been found in many commonly consumed foods and has shown to cause hazardous effects on humans and animals. [1,2] Acrylamide levels in food differ based on the food content, the cooking duration, and the technique employed. Studies on acrylamide toxicity, risk assessment, and mitigation have been extensively carried out, which have provided great insight into the current level of understanding of this health hazard.…”

“…Acrylamide is a highly reactive organic compound that can polymerize and has wide applications in many industries. [1][2][3] Acrylamide is widely used for wastewater treatment in cosmetic industries and molecular biology research.…”

“…[12] We can also carry out acrylamide mitigation using physical methods, whereby one can change the food processing and preparation techniques, focusing specifically on temperature correction, time monitoring, and moisture regulation. [1,2] Reduction in the formation of Maillard reaction products and acrylamide is possible by adjusting physical parameters such as moisture content and temperature. Another approach towards acrylamide mitigation is the use of chemical pre-treatments, which can extract the amino acids and free sugars that subsequently participate in the formation of acrylamide and other by-products.…”

“…Acrylamide (AA) or acrylic amide is a colourless, odourless, water-soluble crystalline solid, commonly used in the production of dyes, organic compounds, and other industrial purposes. [1][2][3][4] This is a potential carcinogen, and the nervous system and the reproductive system…”

Roasted Rye as a Coffee Substitute: Methods for Reducing Acrylamide

“…This compound has been used for decades in polymerized form in biochemistry, in the paper industry, and in wastewater treatment and is therefore produced on an industrial scale by hydrolysis of acrylonitrile [2]. The classification of acrylamide as a "probable carcinogen" in 1994 and its recognition as a possible food contaminant in fried and baked foods in 2002 caused worldwide concern [3,4].…”