Naproxen in the environment: its occurrence, toxicity to nontarget organisms and biodegradation

Abstract

This article summarizes the current knowledge about the presence of naproxen in the environment, its toxicity to nontarget organisms and the microbial degradation of this drug. Currently, naproxen has been detected in all types of water, including drinking water and groundwater. The concentrations that have been observed ranged from ng/L to μg/L. These concentrations, although low, may have a negative effect of long-term exposure on nontarget organisms, especially when naproxen is mixed with other drugs. The biological decomposition of naproxen is performed by fungi, algae and bacteria, but the only well-described pathway for its complete degradation is the degradation of naproxen by Bacillus thuringiensis B1(2015b). The key intermediates that appear during the degradation of naproxen by this strain are O-desmethylnaproxen and salicylate. This latter is then cleaved by 1,2-salicylate dioxygenase or is hydroxylated to gentisate or catechol. These intermediates can be cleaved by the appropriate dioxygenases, and the resulting products are incorporated into the central metabolism. Key points •High consumption of naproxen is reflected in its presence in the environment. •Prolonged exposure of nontargeted organisms to naproxen can cause adverse effects. •Naproxen biodegradation occurs mainly through desmethylnaproxen as a key intermediate.

Can Ultrasound Therapy Be an Environmental-Friendly Alternative to Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Knee Osteoarthritis Treatment?

“…For diclofenac, photo-transformation metabolites are even more toxic than diclofenac, and in algal reproduction tests three of diclofenac metabolites exhibited a six-fold increase in toxicity [ 40 ]. Similar results were reported for naproxen, its photo-derivatives being reported as more toxic for numerous species of bacteria ( Vibrio fischeri ), rotifer ( Brachionus calyciflorus ), and crustaceans ( Thamnocephalus platyurus , Daphnia magna , and Ceriodaphnia dubia ) [ 31 , 41 , 42 ].…”

“…Naproxen, the most utilized NSAID for OA patients in USA, was detected in all types of water, including drinking water and groundwater. Although the concentrations that have been observed in USA were low, from ng/L to μg/L, the long-term exposure to these concentrations may have a negative effect on living organisms, especially when naproxen is mixed with other drugs [ 31 ]. Unfortunately, in Europe, naproxen concentrations exceeded 2.027 μg/L in 69% of water samples harvested from more than 100 European rivers [ 32 ].…”

Repositioned Drugs for Chagas Disease Unveiled via Structure-Based Drug Repositioning

“…Naproxen is a bicyclic propionic acid derivative that has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic effects and is classified as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). Like most NSAIDs, naproxen acts via the inhibition of Cyclooxygenase (COX) isoforms I and II, which are involved in the synthesis of prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxane from arachidonic acid [ 76 , 77 ]. Our results show that naproxen is a potent inhibitor of T. cruzi trypomastigote (see Table 3 ).…”

UV-visible photodegradation of naproxen in water – Structural elucidation of photoproducts and potential toxicity

“…13 It has been demonstrated that Naproxen, by itself or through its metabolites, can affect organisms that inhabit ecosystems and one of the most important aspects of studies on the degradation of pollutants is the toxicity of degradation products, which in some cases can be higher than that of the parent molecule. 14 The main objective of the present work was to characterize the photoproducts generated from direct photolysis of Naproxen, based on GC-MS and LC-MS investigations. Ultra-high-resolution measurements permitted direct assignment of exact formulae while tandem experiments allowed structural elucidation for the major part of photoproducts.…”