The key algal response mechanisms to cope with NP toxicity and implications for algal bloom control by NPs.

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Abstract1. Subterranean detritivores such as earthworms can increase soil nutrient availability through their burrowing and casting activities. A number of recent studies have explored whether these changes caused by earthworms may in turn affect plant performance and resistance to herbivores, but no formal synthesis of this literature has been conducted to date.2. We tested for the effects of earthworms on plant growth, resistance and chemical defences against insect herbivores by performing a meta-analysis of the existing literature up to 2016. We also explored ecological factors that might explain among-studies variation in the magnitude of the earthworm effects on plant growth and resistance.3. We found that earthworm presence increases plant growth (by 20%) and nitrogen content (by 11%). Overall, earthworms did not affect plant resistance against chew-