W-Y-N coatings with yttrium content ranging from 0 to 8.2 at.-% were deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering technique. The influence of yttrium content on the structure, oxidation resistance and mechanical properties was investigated. The results show that yttrium atoms substitute tungsten atoms forming the solid solution W-Y-N coatings. All the coatings exhibit a single-phase face-centered cubic structure and the preferred orientation changes from ( 200) to ( 111) with yttrium addition. The grain size of W-Y-N coatings decreases with the increase of yttrium content. The oxidation resistance temperature of W-Y-N coatings increases from 500°C at 0 at.-% Y to 730°C at 8.2 at.-% Y. All coatings are in compressive stress state. The hardness, elastic modulus and compressive stress of W-Y-N coatings increase gradually from 28.0, 320 and 1.1 GPa at 0 at.-% Y to 36.0, 385 and 2.1 GPa at 8.2 at.% Y, respectively. The improvement of hardness was attributed to the effect of solid solution strengthening and the grain refinement. In addition, the addition of yttrium content into WN coating also improves its resistance against elastic strain and plastic deformation to failure.
A detailed tire-rolling model (185/75R14), using the implicit to explicit FEA solving strategy, was constructed to provide a reliable, dynamic simulation with several modeling features, including mesh, material modeling, and a solving strategy that could contribute to the consideration of the serious numerical noises. High-quality hexahedral meshes of tread blocks were obtained with a combined mapping method. The actual rubber distributing and nonlinear, stress-strain relationship of the rubber and bilinear elastic reinforcement were modeled for realism. In addition, a tread-rubber friction model obtained from the Laboratory Abrasion and Skid Tester (LAT 100) was applied to simulate the interaction of the tire with the road. The force and moment (F&) behaviors of tire cornering when subjected to a slip-angle sweep of −10 to 10° were studied with that model. To demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed simulation, the computed F&M were compared with experimental results from an MTS Flat-Trac Tire Test System. The computed cornering F&M agreed well with the experimental results, so the footprint shape and contact pressure distribution of several cornering conditions were investigated. Furthermore, the longitudinal forces in response to braking/driving torque application in a slip-ratio range of −100% to 100% were computed. The proposed FEA solution confines the numerical noise within a smaller range and can serve as a valid tool in tire design.
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