Using the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with a spectral‐bin microphysics (“SBM”) and measurements from the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Mobile Facility field campaign in China (AMF‐China), the authors examine aerosol indirect effects (AIE) in the typical cloud regimes of the warm and cold seasons in Southeast China: deep convective clouds (DCC) and stratus clouds (SC), respectively. Comparisons with a two‐moment bulk microphysics (“Bulk”) are performed to gain insights for improving bulk schemes in estimating AIE in weather and climate simulations. For the first time, measurements of aerosol and cloud properties acquired in China are used to evaluate model simulations to better understand aerosol impact on clouds in the southeast of China. It is found that changes in cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentration significantly change the timing of storms, the spatial and temporal distributions of precipitation, the frequency distribution of precipitation rate, as well as cloud base and top heights for the DCC, but not for the SC. Increasing CCN increases cloud droplet number (Nc) and mass concentrations, decreases raindrop number concentration, and delays the onset of precipitation. Compared with SBM, Bulk predicts much higher Ncand the opposite CCN effects on convection and heavy rain, stemming from the fixed CCN prescribed in Bulk. CCN have a significant effect on ice microphysical properties with SBM but not Bulk and different condensation/deposition freezing parameterizations employed could be the main reason. This study provided insights to further improve the bulk scheme to better account for aerosol‐cloud interactions in regional and global climate simulations, which will be the focus for a follow‐on paper.
In this study, we adopt kernel density estimation, spatial autocorrelation, spatial Markov chain, and panel quantile regression methods to analyze spatial spillover effects and driving factors of carbon emission intensity in 283 Chinese cities from 1992 to 2013. The following results were obtained. (1) Nuclear density estimation shows that the overall average carbon intensity of cities in China has decreased, with differences gradually narrowing. (2) The spatial autocorrelation Moran's I index indicates significant spatial agglomeration of carbon emission intensity is gradually increasing; however, differences between regions have remained stable. (3) Spatial Markov chain analysis shows a Matthew effect in China's urban carbon emission intensity. In addition, low-intensity and high-intensity cities characteristically maintain their initial state during the transition period. Furthermore, there is a clear "Spatial Spillover" effect in urban carbon emission intensity and there is heterogeneity in the spillover effect in different regional contexts; that is, if a city is near a city with low carbon emission intensity, the carbon emission intensity of the first city has a higher probability of upward transfer, and vice versa. (4) Panel quantile results indicate that in cities with low carbon emission intensity, economic growth, technological progress, and appropriate population density play an important role in reducing emissions. In addition, foreign investment intensity and traffic emissions are the main factors that increase carbon emission intensity. In cities with high carbon intensity, population density is an important emission reduction factor, and technological progress has no significant effect. In contrast, industrial emissions, extensive capital investment, and urban land expansion are the main factors driving the increase in carbon intensity.
Within our study parameters, a thinner PoLTT under a small-diameter SL was associated with faster PoLTT mixing. However, there was no relationship between PoLTT and central corneal thickness during 5-hour SL wear.
TitleResults: The tear film upon wakening (264 6 14 mOsm/L) was hypoosmotic compared with baseline (297 6 15 mOsm/L, P , 0.001). TO (in mOsm/L) at 20 minutes, 40 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, and 8 hours were 287 6 10, 292 6 16, 293 6 12, 292 6 10, 289 6 10, and 286 6 10, respectively. CCT (mean 6 SD) at baseline was 552.2 6 35.9 mm and increased to 572.0 6 38.7 mm after sleep. CCT returned to baseline thickness 4 hours after awakening (P , 0.000) and remained stable throughout the day. A small but statistically significant association was found between higher TO and lower CCT (P , 0.0001) and between lower baseline TO and higher PRPH (faster deswelling; P , 0.0001).
Conclusions:The diurnal pattern of TO has been established. The association of TO with corneal thickness and deswelling suggests that the tear film tonicity may be partly responsible for corneal hydration control; however, the effect may not be of clinical significance in a normal study cohort.
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