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Despite widespread assumptions about women’s empowerment and agency in the Arab Middle East, psychometric research of these constructs is limited. Using national data from 6214 married women ages 16–49 who took part in the 2006 Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey, we applied factor analysis to explore and then to test the factor structure of women’s agency. We then used multiple indicator multiple cause structural equations models to test for differential item functioning (DIF) by women’s age at first marriage, a potential resource for women’s agency. Our results confirm that women’s agency in Egypt is multi-dimensional and comprised of their (1) influence in family decisions, including those reserved for men, (2) freedom of movement in public spaces, and (3) attitudes about gender, specifically violence against wives. These dimensions confirm those explored previously in selected rural areas of Egypt and South Asia. Yet, three items showed significant uniform DIF by women’s categorical age at first marriage, with and without a control for women’s age in years. Models adjusting for DIF and women’s age in years showed that women’s older age at first marriage was positively associated with the factor means for family decision-making and gender-violence attitudes, but not freedom of movement. Our findings reveal the value of our analytical strategy for research on the dimensions and determinants of women’s agency. Our approach offers a promising model to discern “hierarchies of evidence” for social policies and programs to enhance women’s empowerment.

Child marriage (before age 18) is a risk factor for intimate partner violence (IPV) against women. Worldwide, Bangladesh has the highest prevalence of IPV and very early child marriage (before age 15). How the community prevalence of very early child marriage influences a woman’s risk of IPV is unknown. Using panel data (2013–2014) from 3,355 women first married 4–12 years prior in 77 Bangladeshi villages, we tested the protective effect of a woman’s later first marriage (at age 18 or older), the adverse effect of a higher village prevalence of very early child marriage, and whether any protective effect of a woman’s later first marriage was diminished or reversed in villages where very early child marriage was more prevalent. Almost one-half (44.5 %) of women reported incident physical IPV, and 68.9 % had married before age 18. The village-level incidence of physical IPV ranged from 11.4 % to 75.0 %; the mean age at first marriage ranged from 14.8 to 18.0 years. The mean village-level prevalence of very early child marriage ranged from 3.9 % to 51.9 %. In main-effects models, marrying at 18 or later protected against physical IPV, and more prevalent very early child marriage before age 15 was a risk factor. The interaction of individual later marriage and the village prevalence of very early child marriage was positive; thus, the likely protective effect of marrying later was negated in villages where very early child marriage was prevalent. Collectively reducing very early child marriage may be needed to protect women from IPV.

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We consider three explanations for variation in emphasis on teaching for higher order thinking in U.S. secondary classrooms: (a) current conceptions of learning encourage pursuit of higher order objectives primarily for high-track students in advanced courses; (b) many teachers lack adequate preparation to teach for higher order thinking; and (c) organizational norms discourage pursuit of higher order objectives. We asked secondary teachers in 16 schools to identify their instructional goals for each of their classes and constructed scales to capture higher order emphasis in math, science, social studies, and English. A three-level hierarchical regression analysis revealed powerful effects of track on higher order objectives in all disciplines, especially math and science. Effects of teacher preparation and organizational norms were manifest in English and social studies, but not in math or science. Differentiation of instructional objectives based on academic track is apparently deeply institutionalized, particularly in math and science. STEPHEN W. RAUDENBUSH is a Professor in the College of Education at Michigan State University, 46l Erickson Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824. His specialization is statistical models for individual change and social context. BRIAN ROWAN is a Professor in the School of Education at 4112 School of Education, The University of Michigan, 610 E. University, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. His specialization is organization theory and research. YUK FAI CHEONG is a doctoral candidate in the College of Education at Michigan State University, 401 B Erickson Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824. His specialization is hierarchical linear models in classroom and school effects research.