BACKGROUND & AIMS Long-chain fatty acid receptors G-protein–coupled receptor 40 (GPR40) (FFAR1) and GPR120 have been implicated in the chemosensation of dietary fats. I cells in the intestine secrete cholecystokinin (CCK), a peptide hormone that stimulates digestion of fat and protein, but these cells are rare and hard to identify. We sought to determine whether dietary fat-induced secretion of CCK is directly mediated by GPR40 expressed on I cells. METHODS We used fluorescence-activated cell sorting to isolate a pure population of I cells from duodenal mucosa in transgenic mice that expressed green fluorescent protein under the control of the CCK promoter (CCK–enhanced green fluorescent protein [eGFP] bacterial artificial chromosome mice). CCK-eGFP cells were evaluated for GPR40 expression by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunostaining. GPR40−/− mice were bred with CCK-eGFP mice to evaluate functional relevance of GPR40 on long-chain fatty acid–stimulated increases in [Ca2+]i and CCK secretion in isolated CCK-eGFP cells. Plasma levels of CCK after olive oil gavage were compared between GPR40+/+ and GPR40−/− mice. RESULTS Cells that expressed eGFP also expressed GPR40; expression of GPR40 was 100-fold greater than that of cells that did not express eGFP. In vitro, linoleic, oleic, and linolenic acids increased [Ca2+]i; linolenic acid increased CCK secretion by 53% in isolated GPR40+/+ cells that expressed eGFP. In contrast, in GPR40−/− that expressed eGFP, [Ca2+]i response to linoleic acid was reduced by 50% and there was no significant CCK secretion in response to linolenic acid. In mice, olive oil gavage significantly increased plasma levels of CCK compared with pregavage levels: 5.7-fold in GPR40+/+ mice and 3.1-fold in GPR40−/− mice. CONCLUSIONS Long-chain fatty acid receptor GPR40 induces secretion of CCK by I cells in response to dietary fat.
Disrupted-In-Schizophrenia-1 (DISC1) is a promising susceptibility gene for major mental illness, but the mechanism of the clinical association is unknown. We searched for DISC1 transcripts in adult and fetal human brain and tested whether their expression is altered in patients with schizophrenia and is associated with genetic variation in DISC1. Many alternatively spliced transcripts were identified, including groups lacking exon 3 (⌬3), exons 7 and 8 (⌬7⌬8), an exon 3 insertion variant (extra short variant-1, Esv1), and intergenic splicing between TSNAX and DISC1. Isoforms ⌬7⌬8, Esv1, and ⌬3, which encode truncated DISC1 proteins, were expressed more abundantly during fetal development than during postnatal ages, and their expression was higher in the hippocampus of patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia risk-associated polymorphisms [non-synonymous SNPs rs821616 (Cys704Ser) and rs6675281 (Leu607Phe), and rs821597] were associated with the expression of ⌬3 and ⌬7⌬8. Moreover, the same allele at rs6675281, which predicted higher expression of these transcripts in the hippocampus, was associated with higher expression of DISC1⌬7⌬8 in lymphoblasts in an independent sample. Our results implicate a molecular mechanism of genetic risk associated with DISC1 involving specific alterations in gene processing.alternative splicing ͉ genetic ͉ hippocampus ͉ psychiatric illness S chizophrenia is a common mental disorder with a lifetime prevalence of Ϸ 1% (1). It has been assumed, on the basis of evidence from twin, family, and adoption studies, that genetic factors play a strong etiologic role in schizophrenia (2, 3). The genetic predisposition is likely to be determined by a complex network of interactions between genes and environmental risk factors (4).The Disrupted-In-Schizophrenia-1 (DISC1) gene was identified as a potential susceptibility gene for mental disorders based on studies of a chromosomal translocation found in a large Scottish family that had a high frequency of schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders, including bipolar disorder and major depression (5-7). Although the translocation identified in the Scottish family has not been observed in any other families, independent support for involvement of DISC1 in the etiology of mental illness has come from a number of genetic linkage and association studies in diverse populations (8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25). Although the specific SNPs, alleles, and haplotypes have varied across these studies, raising issues of allelic and populations heterogeneity, the overall evidence implicates DISC1 as a promising candidate susceptibility gene for schizophrenia. However, the mechanism by which DISC1 contributes to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia remains unknown. Although reduced expression of DISC1 mRNA was found in lymphoblastoid cell lines of family members with the translocation (26) and in bipolar disorder patients with a putative risk-associated haplotype (27), no changes were detected in the brain tissue of unre...
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