Abstract. Anthropogenic atmospheric emissions of typical toxic heavy metals have caused worldwide concern due to their adverse effects on human health and the ecosystem. By determining the best available representation of time-varying emission factors with S-shape curves, we establish the multiyear comprehensive atmospheric emission inventories of 12 typical toxic heavy metals (Hg, As, Se, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sb, Mn, Co, Cu, and Zn) from primary anthropogenic activities in China for the period of 1949–2012 for the first time. Further, we allocate the annual emissions of these heavy metals in 2010 at a high spatial resolution of 0.5° × 0.5° grid with ArcGIS methodology and surrogate indexes, such as regional population and gross domestic product (GDP). Our results show that the historical emissions of Hg, As, Se, Cd, Cr, Ni, Sb, Mn, Co, Cu, and Zn, during the period of 1949–2012, increased by about 22–128 times at an annual average growth rate of 5.1–8.0 %, reaching about 526.9–22 319.6 t in 2012. Nonferrous metal smelting, coal combustion of industrial boilers, brake and tyre wear, and ferrous metal smelting represent the dominant sources of heavy metal emissions. In terms of spatial variation, the majority of emissions are concentrated in relatively developed regions, especially for the northern, eastern, and southern coastal regions. In addition, because of the flourishing nonferrous metal smelting industry, several southwestern and central-southern provinces play a prominent role in some specific toxic heavy metals emissions, like Hg in Guizhou and As in Yunnan. Finally, integrated countermeasures are proposed to minimize the final toxic heavy metals discharge on account of the current and future demand of energy-saving and pollution reduction in China.
In this study, 3265 multiyear averaged in situ observations and 29 observational records at annual time scale are used to examine the performance of recent reanalysis and regional atmospheric climate model products [ERA-Interim, JRA-55, MERRA, the Polar version of MM5 (PMM5), RACMO2.1, and RACMO2.3] for their spatial and interannual variability of Antarctic surface mass balance (SMB), respectively. Simulated precipitation seasonality is also evaluated using three in situ observations and model intercomparison. All products qualitatively capture the macroscale spatial variability of observed SMB, but it is not possible to rank their relative performance because of the sparse observations at coastal regions with an elevation range from 200 to 1000 m. In terms of the absolute amount of observed snow accumulation in interior Antarctica, RACMO2.3 fits best, while the other models either underestimate (JRA-55, MERRA, ERA-Interim, and RACMO2.1) or overestimate (PMM5) the accumulation. Despite underestimated precipitation by the three reanalyses and RACMO2.1, this feature is clearly improved in JRA-55. However, because of changes in the observing system, especially the dramatically increased satellite observations for data assimilation, JRA-55 presents a marked jump in snow accumulation around 1979 and a large increase after the late 1990s. Although precipitation seasonality over the whole ice sheet is common for all products, ERA-Interim provides an unrealistic estimate of precipitation seasonality on the East Antarctic plateau, with high precipitation strongly peaking in summer. ERA-Interim shows a significant correlation with interannual variability of observed snow accumulation measurements at 28 of 29 locations, whereas fewer than 20 site observations significantly correlate with simulations by the other models. This suggests that ERA-Interim exhibits the highest performance of interannual variability in the observed precipitation.
In this paper we report the growth and superconductivity of N axT aS2 crystals. The structural data deduced from X-ray diffraction pattern shows that the sample has the same structure as 2H − T aS2. A series of crystals with different superconducting transition temperatures (Tc) ranging from 2.5 K to 4.4 K were obtained. It is found that the Tc rises with the increase of N a content determined by Energy-Dispersive x-ray microanalysis(EDX) of Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) on these crystals. Compared with the resistivity curve of un-intercalated sample 2H − T aS2 (Tc = 0.8 K, TCDW ≈ 70 K), no signal of charge density wave (CDW) was observed in samples N a0.1T aS2 and N a0.05T aS2. However, in some samples with lower Tc, the CDW appears again at about 65 K. Comparison between the anisotropic resistivity indicates that the anisotropy becomes smaller in samples with more N a intercalation (albeit a weak semiconducting behavior along c-axis) and thus higher Tc. It is thus concluded that there is a competition between the superconductivity and the CDW. With the increase of sodium content, the rise of Tc in N axT aS2 is caused mainly by the suppression to the CDW in 2H − T aS2, and the conventional rigid band model for layered dichalcogenide may be inadequate to explain the changes induced by the slight intercalation of sodium in 2H − T aS2.
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