To understand how supply chain factors affect product availability at the community level, the Improving Supply Chains for Community Case Management of Pneumonia and Other Common Diseases of Childhood Project developed a theory of change (TOC) framework for gathering, organizing, and interpreting evidence about supply constraints to community case management (CCM). Baseline assessments in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Rwanda conducted in 2010 provided information on the strengths and weaknesses of existing CCM supply chains for five main products: antibiotics for pneumonia, oral rehydration solution, ready to use therapeutic food, zinc, and artemether/lumefantrine. The assessments tested the strength and validity of causal pathways identified in the TOC that were believed to influence availability of CCM products among community health workers (CHWs) for treating common childhood illnesses. Results of the assessments showed product availability to be weak in each country, with more than half of CHWs stocked out of at least one tracer product on the day of the assessment. This report will focus on the findings related to three key preconditions of the TOC and how these were used to inform the design of the CCM supply chain improvement strategy in each country. The three key preconditions include product availability at CHW resupply points, supply chain knowledge and capacity among CHWs and their supervisors, and availability of appropriate transportation.

BackgroundIn 2010, 7.6 million children under five died globally – largely due to preventable diseases. Majority of these deaths occurred in sub–Saharan Africa. As a strategy to reduce child mortality, the Government of Malawi, in 2008, initiated integrated community case management allowing health surveillance assistants (HSAs) to treat sick children in communities. Malawi however, faces health infrastructure challenges, including weak supply chain systems leading to low product availability. A baseline assessment conducted in 2010 identified data visibility, transport and motivation of HSAs as challenges to continuous product availability. The project designed a mHealth tool as part of two interventions to address these challenges.MethodsA mobile health (mHealth) technology – cStock, for reporting on community stock data – was designed and implemented as an integral component of Enhanced Management (EM) and Efficient Product Transport (EPT) interventions. We developed a feasibility and acceptability framework to evaluate the effectiveness and predict the likelihood of scalability and ownership of the interventions. Mixed methods were used to conduct baseline and follow up assessments in May 2010 and February 2013, respectively. Routine monitoring data on community stock level reports, from cStock, were used to analyze supply chain performance over 18–month period in the intervention groups.ResultsMean stock reporting rate by HSAs was 94% in EM group (n = 393) and 79% in EPT group (n = 253); mean reporting completeness was 85% and 65%, respectively. Lead time for HSA drug resupply over the 18–month period was, on average, 12.8 days in EM and 26.4 days in EPT, and mean stock out rate for 6 tracer products was significantly lower in EM compared to EPT group.ConclusionsResults demonstrate that cStock was feasible and acceptable to test users in Malawi, and that based on comparison with the EPT group, the team component of the EM group was an essential pairing with cStock to achieve the best possible supply chain performance and supply reliability. Establishing multi–level teams serves to connect HSAs with decision makers at higher levels of the health system, align objectives, clarify roles and promote trust and collaboration, thereby promoting country ownership and scalability of a cStock–like system.

BackgroundA UNICEF review of the challenges to scaling up integrated community case management (iCCM) found that drug shortages were a common bottleneck. In many settings, little thought has gone into the design of supply chains to the community level and limited evidence exists for how to address these unique challenges. SC4CCM’s purpose was to conduct intervention research to identify proven, simple, affordable solutions that address the unique supply chain challenges faced by CHWs and to demonstrate that supply chain constraints at the community level can be overcome.MethodsSC4CCM selected three countries to implement supply chain innovations and developed a theory of change (TOC) framework for the learning phase, which identified the main drivers of product availability and was used for baseline assessments, design, implementation and evaluation of interventions in Ethiopia, Malawi, and Rwanda. Interventions were developed in each country and tested over 12–24 months. Mixed–method follow up assessments were conducted in each country in 2012–2013. The Supply Chain for Community Case Management (SC4CCM) Project then simplified the TOC into a Community Health Supply Chain (CHSC) framework to enable cross country analysisResultsThe findings from interventions in the three countries suggest that the greatest supply chain benefits are realized when all three CHSC framework elements (data flow, product flow, and effective people) are in place and working together. The synergistic effect of these three elements on supply chain performance was most effectively demonstrated by results from the Enhanced Management and Quality Collaborative interventions in Malawi and Rwanda, respectively, which were characterized by lower mean stockout rates and higher in stock rates on day of visit, when compared to other interventions.ConclusionsMany conditions are necessary to ensure continuous product availability at the community level, however a supply chain works best when three key elements (product flow, data flow, and effective people) are deliberately included as an integral part of the system design. Although these elements may be designed differently in different settings, streamlining and synchronizing them while ensuring inclusion of all components for each element improves supply chain performance and promotes product availability at the community level.

BackgroundSupply chain bottlenecks that prevent community health workers (CHWs) from accessing essential medicines significantly increase under-5 child mortality, particularly in poor and rural areas.ObjectiveUsing implementation research, interventions aimed at improving supply chain practices and access to medicines were tested in Malawi and Rwanda. These interventions included simple demand-based resupply procedures, using mobile technology and traditional methods for communication, and multilevel, performance-driven quality improvement (QI) teams.MethodsMixed-method evaluations were conducted at baseline (2010), midline (2013), and endline (2014). Baseline assessments identified common bottlenecks and established performance levels. Midline assessments identified which intervention package had the greatest impact. Endline surveys measured the progress of scale-up and institutionalization of each innovation.ResultsIn both Rwanda and Malawi CHWs, health center staff, and district managers all cited many benefits of the establishment of resupply procedures and QI teams: such as providing structure and processes, a means to analyze and discuss problems and enhance collaboration between staff.ConclusionsImplementing simple, streamlined, demand-based resupply procedures formed the basis for informed and regular resupply, and increased the visibility of appropriate and timely community logistics data. QI teams played a critical role in reinforcing resupply procedures and routinely unlocking the bottlenecks that prevent the continuous flow of critical health products. While simple, streamlined, demand-based resupply procedures provide the basis for regular, functional, and efficient resupply of CHWs, the procedures alone are not sufficient to create consistent change in product availability. Supporting these procedures with multilevel QI teams reinforces the correct and consistent use of resupply procedures.

Family planning programs, a vital ingredient of socioeconomic development, form a cornerstone of national policy in many developing countries. After the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, governments have increasingly acknowledged the importance of family planning, particularly in opening opportunities for socioeconomic development (UNFPA 1994). Government spending on health, however, tends to give priority to curative rather than preventive care, and scarce health resources are allocated for essential drugs rather than contraceptives (World Bank 1993). To ensure the security of family planning programs, therefore, donors have historically provided free contraceptives to governments and organizations that offer family planning services.Family planning programs depend on the uninterrupted flow of contraceptives through multiple levels of the supply chain, ranging from central warehouses to health clinics and community-based distributors. Failure of the supply chain-or logistics system -causes an erratic supply of contraceptives, which may result in loss of credibility and eventual failure of the family planning program. Ensuring the continuous availability of contraceptives at the client level is a key contributor to increasing the use of family planning services (Ngallaba et al. 1994).The driving force behind a logistics system is a well-functioning logistics management information system (LMIS) (Christopher 1994). Efficient management of the flow of information on stock levels and consumption from lower levels to the center stimulates the flow of contraceptives back down the supply chain. An LMIS helps determine what quantities of each product need to be sent to a particular location at the correct time, for the optimal cost. The flow of stock-level and consumption data along the same channels can inform decisions critical to meeting current and future family planning needs. BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF LMISsMost developing countries are eager to exploit the potential benefits of information systems, which typically increase productivity, organizational effectiveness, and business competitiveness (Avgerou 1995). Although deploying information systems should not be viewed as a panacea for solving problems inherent in any country, an effective LMIS that provides a flow of complete, accurate, and timely data can help health program managers improve their systems by:• Reducing commodity costs