The incidence of prostate cancer (PCa) within Asian population used to be much lower than in the Western population; however, in recent years the incidence and mortality rate of PCa in some Asian countries have grown rapidly. This collaborative report summarized the latest epidemiology information, risk factors, and racial differences in PCa diagnosis, current status and new trends in surgery management and novel agents for castration-resistant prostate cancer. We believe such information would be helpful in clinical decision making for urologists and oncologists, health-care ministries and medical researchers.

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Accumulating evidence suggests that autophagy is involved in the pathophysiological processes of kidney diseases. However, the role of autophagy in the formation of calcium oxalate (CaOx) nephrolithiasis remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the effects of autophagy on renal tubular epithelial cell injury induced by CaOx crystals in vivo and in vitro. We first observed that the expression levels of LC3-II and BECN1 and number of autophagic vacuoles were markedly increased in the renal tissue of CaOx stone patients. We subsequently found that exposure of HK-2 cells to CaOx crystals could increase LC3-II and BECN1 expression as well as the number of GFP-LC3 dots and autophagic vacuoles in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In addition, our results suggest that CaOx crystals induced autophagy, at least in part, via activation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) pathway in HK-2 cells. Furthermore, inhibition of autophagy using 3-methyladenine or siRNA knockdown of BECN1 attenuated CaOx crystal-induced HK-2 cells injury. However, enhancing autophagic activity with rapamycin exerted an opposite effect. Taken together, our results demonstrate that autophagy is essential for CaOx crystal-induced renal tubular epithelial cell injury and that inhibition of autophagy could be a novel therapeutic strategy for CaOx nephrolithiasis.