The recent focus on drug abuse in women has brought attention to numerous differences between women and men. In this review, we discuss both preclinical and clinical findings of sex differences in drug abuse as well as mechanisms that may underlie these differences. Recent evidence suggests that the progression to dependence and abuse may differ between women and men; thus, different prevention and treatment strategies may be required. Similar sex differences in drug sensitivity and self-administration have been reported in laboratory animal studies. Females appear to be more vulnerable than males to the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants, opiates, and nicotine during many phases of the addiction process (e.g. acquisition, maintenance, dysregulation-escalation, relapse). Male and female animals differ in their behavioral, neurological, and pharmacological responses to drugs. Although the role of sex in the mechanisms of drug action remains unclear, preclinical and clinical studies indicate that ovarian hormones, particularly estrogen, play a role in producing sex differences in drug abuse. Future research is necessary to provide information on how to design more effective drug abuse treatment programs and resources that are sex specific.

These findings indicate that female rats were more vulnerable than males to the acquisition of cocaine and heroin self-administration under the conditions of the present experiment.

No abstract

Physical activity, and specifically exercise, has been suggested as a potential treatment for drug addiction. In this review, we discuss clinical and preclinical evidence for the efficacy of exercise at different phases of the addiction process. Potential neurobiological mechanisms are also discussed focusing on interactions with dopaminergic and glutamatergic signaling and chromatin remodeling in the reward pathway. While exercise generally produces an efficacious response, certain exercise conditions may be either ineffective or lead to detrimental effects depending on the level/type/timing of exercise exposure, the stage of addiction, the drug involved, and the subject population. During drug use initiation and withdrawal, its efficacy may be related to its ability to facilitate dopaminergic transmission, and once addiction develops, its efficacy may be related to its ability to normalize glutamatergic and dopaminergic signaling and reverse drug-induced changes in chromatin via epigenetic interactions with BDNF in the reward pathway. We conclude with future directions, including the development of exercise-based interventions alone or as an adjunct to other strategies for treating drug addiction.

Female rats selectively bred for higher saccharin intake show more rapid and successful acquisition of IV self-administration of a low dose of cocaine than those bred for low saccharin intake. Female rats (compared with males) consistently showed accelerated rates of acquisition and maintenance (PR) of cocaine self-administration and acquisition of heroin self-administration.

Adolescent-onset gambling is associated with more severe psychiatric problems, particularly substance use disorders, in adolescents and young adults. More research is needed to investigate the relationships and inform prevention and treatment strategies.

Regulation of drug intake refers to the maintenance of relatively constant levels of drug over a specified time period. An understanding of regulation of drug intake may be critical in determining how drugs function as reinforcers and how their reinforcing effects may be modified. However, little is known about regulation of drug intake, and the mechanisms underlying it are poorly understood. Three mechanisms that have proposed to account for findings of regulation of drug intake were discussed to determine their relevance for drug-reinforced responding. These mechanisms include aversive effects, direct effects, and satiation. Although a greater role for satiation was supported in this review, drugs may vary on the degree to which they can produce satiation and whether satiation acts in concert with either the aversive effects or the direct effects of drugs is unclear.

These findings indicate sex differences in the regulation of cocaine self-administration, and they suggest that ovarian hormones may be responsible for the observed sex differences.