This paper reports dissociation constants and "effective molarities" (M eff ) for the intramolecular binding of a ligand covalently attached to the surface of a protein by oligo(ethylene glycol) (EG n ) linkers of different lengths (n = 0, 2, 5, 10, and 20), and compares these experimental values with theoretical estimates from polymer theory. As expected, the value of M eff is lowest when the linker is too short (n = 0) to allow the ligand to bind noncovalently at the active site of the protein without strain, is highest when the linker (n = 2) is the optimal length to allow such binding to occur, and decreases monotonically as the length increases past this optimal value (but, only by a factor of approximately eight from n = 2 to n = 20). These experimental results are not compatible with a model in which the single bonds of the linker are completely restricted when the ligand has bound non-covalently to the active site of the protein, but are quantitatively compatible with a model that treats the linker as a random-coil polymer. Calorimetry revealed that enthalpic interactions between the linker and the protein are not important in determining the thermodynamics of the system. Taken together, these results suggest that the manifestation of the linker in the thermodynamics of binding is exclusively entropic. The values of M eff are, theoretically, intrinsic properties of the EG n linkers, and can be used to predict the avidities of multivalent ligands with these linkers for multivalent proteins. The weak dependence of M eff on linker length suggests that multivalent ligands containing flexible linkers that are longer than the spacing between the binding sites of a multivalent protein will be effective in binding, and that the use of flexible linkers with length somewhat greater than the optimal distance between binding sites is a justifiable strategy for use in the design of multivalent ligands.
This paper describes a systematic study of the thermodynamics of association of bovine carbonic anhydrase II (BCA) and para-substituted benzenesulfonamides with chains of oligoglycine, oligosarcosine, and oligoethylene glycol of lengths of one to five residues. For all three of these series of ligands, the enthalpy of binding became less favorable, and the entropy less unfavorable, as the chain length of the ligands increased. The dependence on chain length of the enthalpy was almost perfectly compensated by that of the entropy; this compensation resulted in dissociation constants that were independent of chain length for the three series of ligands. Changes in heat capacity were independent of chain length for the three series and revealed that the amount of molecular surface area buried upon protein-ligand complexation did not increase with increasing chain length. Taken together, these data refute a model in which the chains of the ligands interact hydrophobically with the surface of BCA. To explain the data, a model is proposed based on decreasing "tightness" of the protein-ligand interface as the chain length of the ligand increases. This decreasing tightness, as the chain length increases, is reflected in a less favorable enthalpy (due to fewer van der Waals contacts) and a less unfavorable entropy (due to greater mobility of the chain) of binding for ligands with long chains than for those with short chains. Thus, this study demonstrates a surprising example of enthalpy/entropy compensation in a well-defined system. Understanding this compensation is integral to the rational design of high-affinity ligands for proteins.
This work describes a method for patterning a gold substrate with multiple, aligned self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) using light at different wavelengths. It describes the synthesis and characterization of an alkanethiolate SAM that is photosensitive to light at both 220 and 365 nm. A photomask acts as an area-selective filter for light at 220 and 365 nm, and a single set of exposures at these two wavelengths through one photomask, without steps of alignment between the exposures, can produce three aligned SAMs on one gold substrate. We demonstrate the versatility of this method of photopatterning by modifying individual aligned SAMs chemically to produce surfaces having different properties. We characterize the modified SAMs using immunolabeling, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectroscopy, and surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. We also describe the patterning of two aligned SAMs that resist the adsorption of proteins and a third region that does not resist the adsorption of proteins. The ability to produce multiple, aligned patterns of SAMs in a single step, without alignment of photomasks in separate steps, increases the versatility of SAMs for studying a range of physical phenomena.
This paper proposes a method for sensing affinity interactions by triggering disruption of selfassembly of ion channel-forming peptides in planar lipid bilayers. It shows that the binding of a derivative of alamethicin carrying a covalently attached sulfonamide ligand to carbonic anhydrase II (CA II) resulted in the inhibition of ion channel conductance through the bilayer. We propose that the binding of the bulky CA II protein (MW ~30 kD) to the ion channel-forming peptides (MW ~2.5 kD) either reduced the tendency of these peptides to self-assemble into a pore, or extracted them from the bilayer altogether. In both outcomes, the interactions between the protein and the ligand lead to a disruption of self-assembled pores. Addition of a competitive inhibitor -4-carboxybenzenesulfonamide -to the solution released CA II from the alamethicin-sulfonamide conjugate and restored the current flow across the bilayer by allowing reassembly of the ion channels in the bilayer. Time-averaged recordings of the current over discrete time intervals made it possible to quantify this monovalent ligand binding interaction. This method gave a dissociation constant of 2 µM for the binding of CA II to alamethicin-sulfonamide in the bilayer recording chamber: this value is consistent with a value obtained independently with CA II and a related sulfonamide derivative by isothermal titration calorimetry.
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