Forty‐nine greenhouses of vegetable crops were surveyed in southeast Spain at the beginning of the disease season in December 1992 to estimate frequencies of resistance to benzimidazoles, dicarboximides and N‐phenylcarbamates (NPC) in B. cinerea. Out of 261 isolates collected, 28% were sensitive to both benzimidazoles and dicarboximides, 15% were benzimidazole‐resistant and dicarboximide‐sensitive, 8% were benzimidazole‐sensitive and dicarboximide‐resistant and 46% were benzimidazole‐ and dicarboximide‐resistant. Resistance to benzimidazole, dicarboximide and N‐phenylcarbamate was determined by measuring the ability of each isolate to grow in the presence of carbendazim, procymidone and diethofencarb fungicides respectively. Carbendazim‐ or procymidone‐ resistant isolates were found in all surveyed greenhouses. Three isolates were found with resistance to carbendazim, procymidone and diethofencarb collected in two adjacent greenhouses that were sprayed with the carbendazim and diethofencarb mixture. All other isolates were sensitive to the mixture because they were either sensitive to carbendazim and resistant to diethofencarb or vice versa. Fitness of 31 isolates of B. cinerea was determined in vivo by measuring their sporulation and lesion growth rate on leaf disks. No fitness costs were associated with resistance to iprodione (dicarboximide) and benomyl (benzimidazole). Isolates with EC50 values higher than 101 mg/L for benomyl and 1.6 mg/L for iprodione were considered to be field resistant (they caused visible lesions on cucumber leaf disks treated with each fungicide).

Forty-seven greenhouses of vegetable crops were surveyed in south-eastern

Fitness costs in Botrytis cinerea associated with dicarboximide resistance were studied. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were calculated between resistance to iprodione and survival ability both outside and inside the greenhouse, measured on isolates randomly chosen from a collection done in a survey of commercial greenhouses in Southeastern Spain in 1992. Survival was measured at 47, 83, and 110 days as percentage of surviving mycelia in a sample of artificially inoculated tomato stem pieces and as percentage of viable sclerotia from a sample of sclerotia produced on potato dextrose agar. Resistance to iprodione was measured by the fungicide concentration that reduces fungal growth by 50% (EC(50) values). Significant (P < 0.05) negative correlation coefficients between survival of sclerotia and resistance to iprodione were found for some samplings dates, which indicates that sclerotia of resistant isolates survive less well than sclerotia from sensitive isolates. For mycelia, no relationship between survival and resistance was found.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are affordable these days. For that reason, there are currently examples of the use of UAVs in recreational, professional and research applications. Most of the commercial UAVs use Px4 for their operating system. Even though Px4 allows one to change the flight controller structure, the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) format is still by far the most popular choice. A selection of the PID controller parameters is required before the UAV can be used. Although there are guidelines for the design of PID parameters, they do not guarantee the stability of the UAV, which in many cases, leads to collisions involving the UAV during the calibration process. In this paper, an offline tuning procedure based on the multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) algorithm for the attitude and altitude control of a Px4-based UAV is proposed. A Pareto dominance concept is used for the MOPSO to find values for the PID comparing parameters of step responses (overshoot, rise time and root-mean-square). Experimental results are provided to validate the proposed tuning procedure by using a quadrotor as a case study.

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