The residue of cottonseed oil extraction industry popularly known as cottonseed meal (CSM) is a fairly good source of protein (,,,.* to /0*., g kg ῌ+ ) and metabolizable energy (1.. to ++.33 MJ kg ῌ+ ). The use of CSM in poultry diet is limited due to the presence of gossypol, cyclopropenoid fatty acids (CPFA), high fibre and poor protein quality. The most critical amino acid in CSM is lysine. During the oil extraction from cottonseeds, a portion of free gossypol (FG) binds with the epsilon amino group of lysine, thereby reducing the availability of lysine to the chicken. The concentration of nutrients, FG, CPFA in CSM depends on the variety of cultivars, methods of oil extraction, proportion of kernel to husk, lint and seed coat. The concentration of FG in various varieties of CSM ranges from ,** and /-** mg kg ῌ+ . In glandless variety, the FG concentration is less (῍+-* mg kg ῌ+ ). Gossypol inhibits the activity of pepsin and trypsin in gastro-intestinal tract, thereby reducing the digestibility of protein. The reported toxic e#ects of gossypol are growth depression, lameness, decreased egg size and hatchability. Gossypol and CPFA also deteriorates the internal egg quality by causing yolk mottling and pinkish discoloration of albumen, respectively. The tolerance levels of FG in birds vary widely depending on the age and strain of birds, protein content and quality, duration of feeding, presence of minerals especially the iron content in the diet. The tolerance of FG in chicks varies widely (3* to +*** mg kg ῌ+ diets), however performance of layer chicks could be a#ected even at a lower FG intake of ,.*, mg day ῌ+ bird ῌ+ . Though, growth was not a#ected in broilers at FG concentration in diet below +/* mg kg ῌ+ , feed e$ciency was reduced at lower levels i.e. 0*῎+** mg kg ῌ+ . The depression in egg production in layers fed diets containing more than +** mg kg ῌ+ was mainly due to lowered feed intake. The egg weight and egg quality was not a#ected at FG levels upto ,** mg kg ῌ+ diet. Iron treatment (.:+; Fe:FG) proved to be e#ective in alleviating the negative e#ects on egg quality, but could not alleviate the depression in laying performance. Lysine supplementation to CSM containing diets is also e#ective in counteracting the ill e#ects of FG in chicken, especially chicks and broilers. Other processing methods like solid substrate fermentation, production of glandless cotton seed and use of organic solvents were though e#ective in improving the nutritive value of CSM and reducing the FG content in CSM, these methods are of little practical relevance and uneconomical. Production of glandless variety of cottonseed through genetic modification (Bacillus thuringiensis cotton) is one of the recent trends of reducing the FG content. Some other methods like pelleting, extrusion, cooking and Ca (OH), treatment of CSM could be tried for improving the feeding value of CSM in poultry.

The variables influencing laccase production by white-rot fungus Ganoderma sp. rckk-02 were optimized employing response surface methodology. Malt extract (6.0% w/v), lignin (0.5% w/v) and pH (5.5) were found to be the most significant factors for enhanced laccase production by 7 fold (226.0 U/ml) as compared to unoptimized growth conditions (32.0 U/ml). The N-terminal sequence of laccase revealed its distinct amino acid profile (S- I- R- N- S- G), which suggested it as a novel enzyme. The Far-UV CD spectrum of the laccase showed single broad negative trough at around 213 nm, a typical signature of all β proteins. The laccase was found to fall in the range of middle redox potential laccases. Purified laccase at dosage of 2.5 Ug−1 body weight when supplemented with pelleted diet of rats, a significant improvement (p < 0.05) in nutrients digestibility without causing any elevation of blood stress enzymes was observed.

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The performance of 12 male and 12 female Mandya  Merino lambs weighing between 5.4 and 12.4 kg was investigated by feeding neem seed kernel cake (NSKC) after treatment with 2.5% urea. Lambs of each sex were allotted randomly to concentrate mixture containing either 30% groundnut cake (GNC) or 33% urea-treated neem seed kernel cake (UTNSKC). Over a period of 182 days the concentrate mixtures fed, to meet 70% of the protein requirements of the lambs, were given with oat hay offered ad libitum. Replacement of GNC by UTNSKC in the concentrate mixture depressed (P < 0.001) the digestibility of dietary dry matter (DM) (69.9 vs. 63.3), crude protein (CP) (71.1 vs. 65.1) and gross energy (69.9 vs. 64.3). Digestibility of ether extract (70.5 vs. 77.6) was increased (P < 0.001) and there was no effect on crude ®bre (41.6 vs. 43.8) digestibility, whereas the daily intake of DM (72.51 vs. 65.77 g/M 0.75) and GE (1.33 vs. 1.21 MJ/M 0.75) were higher (P < 0.05) in lambs fed UTNSKC, dietary differences had no effect on digestible energy intake and N retention. The rumen liquor from lambs fed UTNSKC had lower concentrations of total volatile fatty acids (P < 0.01), total N (P < 0.01) and ammonia N (P < 0.01) and depressed activities of cellulase (P < 0.05), protease (P < 0.01) and urease (P < 0.01) enzymes. Average daily gains were similar (P > 0.05) in lambs fed UTNSKC (74.0 g) and GNC (80.3 g). More DM (7.08 vs. 8.04 kg kg À1) and CP (1.10 vs. 1.23 kg kg À1) were required for growth on the ration containing UTNSKC. Feeding UTNSKC had no effect on blood pro®le, wool growth and carcass characteristics. Kidneys from animals fed UTNSKC were enlarged (P < 0.05) as compared to those fed GNC. Microcalculi were observed in all lambs fed UTNSKC. The results indicated that feeding UTNSKC depressed the digestibility of nutrients, which was attributed to the low activities of enzymes in the rumen.

Aims: To test the anaerobic fungus, Piromyces sp. FNG5, for its tolerance to phenolic monomers released in the rumen by degradation of lignocellulosic poor-quality feeds. Methods and Results: Effects of phenolic monomers on biomass and fibrolytic enzyme activities of a pure culture of lignocellulolytic anaerobic fungus (Piromyces sp. FNG5) isolated from faeces of wild nil gai (blue bull, Baselophus tragocamelus) were evaluated. There was a reduction in fungal biomass at 1 mM M concentration of catechol with complete inhibition at 10 mM M. p-Coumaric acid caused a reduction in biomass at 10 mM M and no growth was observed above 20 mM M concentration. The fungal isolate could tolerate up to 5 mM M of ferulic acid without any reduction in biomass level, and was able to grow to some extent up to the highest level of ferulic acid tested (20 mM M). Vanillic acid had no effect on biomass of the fungus even up to 50 mM M level. The phenolic monomers varied in their potential to inhibit the secretion of carboxymethyl cellulase, xylanase, b-glucosidase and acetyl esterase activities with catechol being the most inhibitory and vanillic acid being the least inhibitory. After 14 days of incubation, 38AE49-65AE14% p-Coumaric acid, 65AE22-74AE10% ferulic acid and 34AE13-66AE78% vanillic acid disappeared from the medium under anaerobic conditions. Conclusions, Significance and Impact of the Study: It is concluded that the anaerobic fungus Piromyces sp. FNG5 is tolerant to phenolic monomers and has ability to degrade them. Therefore, such anaerobic fungi may play an important role in fibre degradation in the rumen.