Concern about mycotoxins in aquaculture has been growing, partly due to the gradual replacement of animal-derived proteins, such as fish meal, by plant sources. Over a period of one year, 2,176 samples of different plant protein sources and 25 samples of finished aquaculture feeds were analysed. Samples were tested for aflatoxins (AF; sum of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FB; sum of fumonisin B1 and B2), T-2 toxin and ochratoxin A (full toxin screen). The following plant-based meals were analysed: soybean meal (SBM), wheat (WH), wheat bran (WB), maize (C), corn gluten meal (CGM), cottonseed meal (CSM), rapeseed/canola meal (R/CM) and rice bran (RB). The plant raw materials and aquaculture finished feeds were obtained from Asia and Europe. Finished feed samples from Asia were acquired from Vietnam, Indonesia and Myanmar, while from Europe they were sampled from Denmark, Austria, the Netherlands and Germany. Mycotoxins were found in most of the commodities and finished feeds analysed, showing that mycotoxins represent a risk for the development of the aquaculture sector. Generally, in Asian samples we observed that SBM, WH, WB, C, CGM, R/CM and RB were mostly contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins (ZEA, DON and FB). CSM was contaminated primarily by AF and Fusarium toxins (ZEA and DON) at lower concentrations. European samples were contaminated mainly by Fusarium mycotoxins. The co-occurrence of mycotoxins in all commodities was high, raising the probability of co-occurrence in finished feeds. An accumulation of mycotoxins on the processed plant-based ingredients (e.g. CGM and WB) was observed when compared to the respective whole grains (C and WH, respectively). Compared to results obtained in 2014, finished feeds presented lower contamination levels, but the co-occurrence risk increased.
Contamination of feed materials with mycotoxins is an important issue for farmers, as dietary exposure to these toxins may cause acute or chronic intoxication in animals, resulting in major economic losses. Although prevention methods to avoid mycotoxin contamination on the field prior to harvest, during harvesting or storage have been developed, it is currently not possible to eliminate the risk of a mycotoxin contamination entirely. Here we present a survey over a 4.5 year period that was performed to evaluate the incidence of mycotoxins in feed materials and compounded feed samples originating from Southern European countries, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece and Cyprus. The 416 samples received were tested for the most relevant mycotoxins that are found in feed materials, such as aflatoxins, zearalenone (ZEA), type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol and acetyldeoxynivalenol), type A trichothecenes (T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin), fumonisins and ochratoxin A (OTA), by two different methods, a commercial ELISA and by validated HPLC methods. The Fusarium mycotoxins (type B trichothecenes, ZEA and fumonisins) were the major contaminants. Average concentrations of type B trichothecenes were 365 µg/kg or 445 µg/kg analysed by HPLC or ELISA, respectively. In the case of zearalenone the average concentration was 27 µg/kg by ELISA or 32.5 µg/kg by HPLC. Fumonisin contamination was found with an average of 1,411 µg/kg by HPLC or 6,260 µg/kg by ELISA. Aflatoxins and OTA as well as the type A trichothecenes were detected less frequently and the average concentration was lower in comparison to the other mycotoxins tested. The average concentration of aflatoxins, OTA and the type A trichothecenes was 1 µg/kg or 3 µg/kg, 4 µg/kg or 2 µg/kg, 2 µg/kg or 18 µg/kg, respectively, by HPLC or ELISA analysis.
The awareness of mycotoxin-related issues in aquaculture industry has grown as manufacturers and producers realise the importance of mycotoxins, beyond aflatoxin, and their potential to impact production. During a period of one year (January 2016 – December 2016), 175 samples of different plant proteins, aquaculture/fishery by-products and finished aquaculture feeds, were analysed. Samples were tested for aflatoxins (aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2); zearalenone; type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol (DON); nivalenol; 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol; 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol and fusarenon X-glucoside); fumonisins (fumonisin B1, B2 and B3); type A trichothecenes (T-2 and HT-2 toxin; diacetoxyscirpenol and neosolaniol); and ochratoxin A. All samples were sourced in Southeast Asia. Within the analysed samples, 4% were free of detectable mycotoxins. 8% of the samples had one mycotoxin and 88% of the samples were contaminated with more than one mycotoxin. The current work show similarity to previous studies, that mycotoxin occurrence in plant-meals, and consequently in finished feeds, is quite variable and confirms that aflatoxin is not the main mycotoxin in aquafeeds. Mycotoxin occurrence in fish and shrimp feeds in the present samples were higher than reported in previous studies for the same region. In samples of shrimp feed with DON detected, the mean average DON level was 882 μg/kg with a maximum level of 2,287 μg/kg. These values are within the reported sensitivity levels of white leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Despite the limited number and short period of sampling, this inventory study helps address a knowledge gap of mycotoxin occurrence in feeds specifically destined for the aquaculture industry.
Mycotoxins are ubiquitously present in feeds and raw materials and can exert toxicity on animals and humans. Therefore, mycotoxin occurrence should be monitored. We report here a multi-mycotoxin survey of feed samples in China from 2017 to 2021. Concentrations of aflatoxins, trichothecenes type B, fumonisins, and zearalenone were determined in a total of 9392 samples collected throughout China. Regional differences and year-to-year variation of mycotoxin occurrence were also assessed in new-season corn. Generally, Fusarium mycotoxins were prevalent, while mycotoxin contamination in each feed commodity showed a distinct pattern, e.g., wheat and bran were typically affected by trichothecenes type B, peanut meals were highly susceptible to aflatoxins, and finished feeds exhibited a comparatively high prevalence of all mycotoxins. In new-season corn, trichothecenes type B and fumonisins were most prevalent, with positive rates of 84.04% and 87.16%, respectively. Regions exhibited different patterns of mycotoxin occurrence. The Anhui and Jiangsu provinces of East China exhibited a high prevalence and concentrations of aflatoxins with a positive rate and a positive average of 82.61% and 103.08 μg/kg, respectively. Central China obtained high fumonisins levels of 4707.84 μg/kg. Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone occurred more frequently in temperate regions of Northeast China, and their positive rates reached 94.99% and 55.67%, respectively. In these regions, mycotoxin concentrations in new-season corn exhibited pronounced year-to-year variations and this could be due to the unusual changes of rainfall or temperature during sensitive periods of corn growing. A large fraction of new-season corn samples contained multiple mycotoxins with two to three classes (75.42%), and the most frequently observed co-contaminants were the combination of trichothecenes type B and fumonisins (73.52%). Trichothecenes type B and zearalenone concentrations were highly positively correlated with a coefficient of 0.775. In conclusion, mycotoxins contamination and co-contamination of feeds are common. Mycotoxin contamination in new-season corn exhibited regional patterns and year-to-year variations, with climate and weather conditions as determinant factors.
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