Granular flow is common across different fields from energy resource recovery and mineral processing to grain transport and traffic flow. Migrating particles may jam and form arches that span constrictions and hinder particle flow. Most studies have investigated the migration and clogging of spherical particles, however, natural particles are rarely spherical, but exhibit eccentricity, angularity and roughness. New experiments explore the discharge of cubes, 2D crosses, 3D crosses and spheres under dry conditions and during particle-laden fluid flow. Variables include orifice-to-particle size ratio and solidity. Cubes and 3D crosses are the most prone to clogging because of their ability to interlock or the development of face-to-face contacts that can resist torque and enhance bridging. Spheres arriving to the orifice must be correctly positioned to create stable bridges, while flat 2D crosses orient their longest axes in the direction of flowlines across the orifice and favor flow. Intermittent clogging causes kinetic retardation in particle-laden flow even in the absence of inertial effects; the gradual increase in the local particle solidity above the constriction enhances particle interactions and the probability of clogging. The discharge volume before clogging is a Poisson process for small orifice-to-particle size ratio; however, the clogging probability becomes history-dependent for non-spherical particles at large orifice-to-particle size ratio and high solidities, i.e., when particle–particle interactions and interlocking gain significance.
Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material found on earth but single crystal diamond is brittle due to the nature of catastrophic cleavage fracture. Polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) materials are made by high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) technology. PDC materials have been widely used in several industries. Wear resistance is a key material property that has long been pursued for its valuable industrial applications. However, the inevitable use of catalysts introduced by the conventional manufacturing process significantly reduces their end-use performance and limits many of their potential applications. In this work, an ultra-strong catalyst-free polycrystalline diamond compact material has been successfully synthesized through innovative ultra-high pressure and ultra-high temperature (UHPHT) technology. These results set up new industry records for wear resistance and thermal stability for PDC cutters utilized for drilling in the oil and gas industry. The new material also broke all single-crystal diamond indenters, suggesting that the new material is too hard to be measured by the current standard single-crystal diamond indentation method. This represents a major breakthrough in hard materials that can expand many potential scientific research and industrial applications.
In this paper we present a review of the application of two types of magnetic sensors—fluxgate magnetometers and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensors—in the oil/gas industry. These magnetic sensors play a critical role in drilling wells safely, accurately and efficiently into a target reservoir zone by providing directional data of the well and acquiring information about the surrounding geological formations. Research into magnetic sensors for oil/gas drilling has not been explored by researchers to the same extent as other applications, such as biomedical, magnetic storage and automotive/aerospace applications. Therefore, this paper aims to serve as an opportunity for researchers to truly understand how magnetic sensors can be used in a downhole environment and to provide fertile ground for research and development in this area. A look ahead, discussing other magnetic sensor technologies that can potentially be used in the oil/gas industry is presented, and what is still needed in order deploy them in the field is also addressed.
Drilling very hard, abrasive and interbedded formations requires PDC cutters not only to possess higher wear resistance and higher impact resistance but also sufficient thermal stability. PDC cutters from conventional high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) technology have limited thermal stability due to the presence of unavoidable Cobalt (Co) catalyst in the cutting structure. Here, we report a new game-changing PDC cutter technology via ultra high pressure and high temperature (UHPHT) technology to produce the world-first ultra-strong and catalyst-free PDC cutting elements. Conventional HPHT technology usually has a synthesis capability of pressures of 5.5 GPa to 7 GPa. In our study, the UHPHT technology is achieved by an innovative two-stage multi-anvil apparatus with novel high pressure assembly designs for generating ultra high-pressures up to 35 GPa - seven times higher than current PDC cutter technology. Micro-sized man-made diamond powders are used as a starting material without the use of any catalyst to make ultra-strong and catalyst-free PDC cutting materials using this high pressure work hardening approach. The design principles and experimental study of centimeter-sized sample chamber for novel 6-8 type two-stage static ultra high pressure apparatus will be detailed. The conventional PDC cutter manufacturing HPHT technologies will also be reviewed. The hardness and fracture toughness of the new cutting materials were evaluated using a Vickers hardness tester. The new ultra-strong PDC cutting materials without using any catalyst were synthesized under applied pressures - nearly three times higher than current PDC cutter manufacturing pressure. The Vickers hardness of the ultra-high pressure synthesized PDC cutting materials reached the top limit of the single crystal diamond, more than 200% higher than current PDC cutters. The PDC cutting elements also possess the metallic fracture toughness that is also more than 200% higher than that of current PDC cutters. More importantly, the PDC cutting materials exhibit the industry record on wear resistance, more than 200% higher than current PDC cutters. Materials characterization including SEM and TEM indicated that the breakthrough performance is directly related to the unique micro-/nano composite microstructure developed under ultra high pressure work hardening conditions. The ultra-strong and catalyst-free PDC cutting elements achieved by innovative ultra high pressure and ultra high temperature technology represent a breakthrough for oil and gas drilling technology.
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