BackgroundType-I interferons (IFNs) are used to treat certain inflammatory diseases. Moreover, activation of type-I IFN-signaling in immune cells inhibits the production of proinflammatory cytokines and activation of inflammasomes. However, the molecular mechanisms remain largely unknown. Upon sensing cytosolic double-stranded DNA, the AIM2 protein forms the AIM2-ASC inflammasome, resulting in activation of caspase-1. Given that the IFI16 and AIM2 proteins are IFN-inducible and can heterodimerize with each other, we investigated the regulation of IFI16, AIM2, and inflammasome proteins by type-I and type-II IFNs and explored whether the IFI16 protein could negatively regulate the activation of the AIM2 (or other) inflammasome.Methodology/ Principal FindingsWe found that basal levels of the IFI16 and AIM2 proteins were relatively low in peripheral blood monocytes (CD14+) and in the THP-1 monocytic cell line. However, treatment of THP-1 cells with type-I (IFN-α or β) or type-II (IFN-γ) IFN induced the expression levels of IFI16, AIM2, ASC and CASP1 proteins. The induced levels of IFI16 and AIM2 proteins were detected primarily in the cytoplasm. Accordingly, relatively more IFI16 protein bound with the AIM2 protein in the cytoplasmic fraction. Notably, increased expression of IFI16 protein in transfected HEK-293 cells inhibited activation of caspase-1 by the AIM2-ASC inflammasome. Moreover, the constitutive knockdown of the IFI16 expression in THP-1 cells increased the basal and induced [induced by poly(dA:dT) or alum] activation of the caspase-1 by the AIM2 and NLRP3 inflammasomes.Conclusions/SignificanceOur observations revealed that the type-I and type-II IFNs induce the expression of IFI16, AIM2, and inflammasome proteins to various extents in THP-1 cells and the expression of IFI16 protein in THP-1 cells suppresses the activation of caspase-1 by the AIM2 and NLRP3 inflammasomes. Thus, our observations identify the IFI16 protein as a mediator of the anti-inflammatory actions of the type-I IFNs.

Hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) is a systemic medical condition and has been attributed to multi-organ pathologies. Genetic, nutritional, hormonal, age and gender differences are involved in abnormal homocysteine (Hcy) metabolism that produces HHcy. Homocysteine is an intermediate for many key processes such as cellular methylation and cellular antioxidant potential and imbalances in Hcy production and/or catabolism impacts gene expression and cell signaling including GPCR signaling. Furthermore, HHcy might damage the vagus nerve and superior cervical ganglion and affects various GPCR functions; therefore it can impair both the parasympathetic and sympathetic regulation in the blood vessels of skeletal muscle and affect long-term muscle function. Understanding cellular targets of Hcy during HHcy in different contexts and its role either as a primary risk factor or as an aggravator of certain disease conditions would provide better interventions. In this review we have provided recent Hcy mediated mechanistic insights into different diseases and presented potential implications in the context of reduced muscle function and integrity. Overall, the impact of HHcy in various skeletal muscle malfunctions is underappreciated; future studies in this area will provide deeper insights and improve our understanding of the association between HHcy and diminished physical function.

b Dysregulated Raf/MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling, a common hallmark of tumorigenesis, can trigger innate tumor-suppressive mechanisms, which must be inactivated for carcinogenesis to occur. This innate tumor-suppressive signaling may provide a potential therapeutic target. Here we report that mortalin (HSPA9/GRP75/PBP74) is a novel negative regulator of Raf/MEK/ERK and may provide a target for the reactivation of tumor-suppressive signaling of the pathway in cancer. We found that mortalin is present in the MEK1/MEK2 proteome and is upregulated in human melanoma biopsy specimens. In different MEK/ERK-activated cancer cell lines, mortalin depletion induced cell death and growth arrest, which was accompanied by increased p21 CIP1 transcription and MEK/ERK activity. Remarkably, MEK/ERK activity was necessary for mortalin depletion to induce p21 CIP1 expression in B-Raf V600E -transformed cancer cells regardless of their p53 status. In contrast, in cell types exhibiting normal MEK/ERK status, mortalin overexpression suppressed B-Raf V600E -or ⌬Raf-1:ER-induced MEK/ERK activation, p21CIP1 expression, and cell cycle arrest. Other HSP70 family chaperones could not effectively replace mortalin for p21 CIP1 regulation, suggesting a unique role for mortalin. These findings reveal a novel mechanism underlying p21 CIP1 regulation in MEK/ERK-activated cancer and identify mortalin as a molecular switch that mediates the tumor-suppressive versus oncogenic result of dysregulated Raf/MEK/ERK signaling. Our study also demonstrates that p21 CIP1 has dual effects under mortalin-depleted conditions, i.e., mediating cell cycle arrest while limiting cell death.

The interferon (IFN)-inducible p200-protein family includes structurally-related murine (for example, p202a, p202b, p204, and Aim2) and human (for example, AIM2 and IFI16) proteins. All proteins in the family share a partially-conserved repeat of 200-amino acid residues (also called HIN-200 domain) in the C-terminus. Additionally, most proteins (except the p202a and p202b proteins) also share a protein-protein interaction pyrin domain (PYD) in the N-terminus. The HIN-200 domain contains two consecutive oligosaccharide/oligonucleotide binding folds (OB-folds) to bind double stranded DNA (dsDNA). The PYD domain in proteins allows interactions with the family members and an adaptor protein ASC. Upon sensing cytosolic dsDNA, Aim2, p204, and AIM2 proteins recruit ASC protein to form an inflammasome, resulting in increased production of proinflammatory cytokines. However, IFI16 protein can sense cytosolic as well as nuclear dsDNA. Interestingly, the IFI16 protein contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS). Accordingly, the initial studies had indicated that the endogenous IFI16 protein is detected in the nucleus and within the nucleus in the nucleolus. However, several recent reports suggest that subcellular localization of IFI16 protein in nuclear versus cytoplasmic (or both) compartment depends on cell type. Given that the IFI16 protein can sense cytosolic as well as nuclear dsDNA and can initiate different innate immune responses (production of IFN-β versus proinflammatory cytokines), here we evaluate the experimental evidence for the regulation of subcellular localization of IFI16 protein in various cell types. We conclude that further studies are needed to understand the molecular mechanisms that regulate the subcellular localization of IFI16 protein.

The interferon (IFN)-inducible IFI16 and AIM2 proteins act as innate immune sensors for cytosolic double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). Upon sensing dsDNA, the IFI16 protein induces the expression of IFN-β whereas the AIM2 protein forms an inflammasome, which promotes the secretion of IL-1β. Given that the knockdown of IFI16 expression in human diploid fibroblasts (HDFs) delays the onset of cellular senescence, we investigated the potential roles for the IFI16 and AIM2 proteins in cellular senescence. We found that increased IFI16 protein levels in old (versus young) HDFs were associated with the induction of IFN-β. In contrast, increased levels of the AIM2 protein in the senescent (versus old) HDFs were associated with increased production of IL-1β. The knockdown of type I IFN-receptor subunit-α, which reduced the basal levels of the IFI16, but not the AIM2, protein delayed the onset of cellular senescence. Accordingly, increased constitutive levels of IFI16 and AIM2 proteins in ataxia telangiectasia (AT) HDFs were associated with the activation of the IFN-signaling and increased levels of IL-1β. The IFN-β treatment of the young HDFs, which induced the expression of IFI16 and AIM2 proteins, activated a DNA-damage response and also increased basal levels of IL-1β. Interestingly, the knockdown of AIM2 expression in HDFs increased the basal levels of IFI16 protein and activated the IFN-signaling. In contrast, the knockdown of the IFI16 expression in HDFs decreased the basal and dsDNA-induced activation of the IFN-signaling. Collectively, our observations demonstrate differential roles for the IFI16 and AIM2 proteins in cellular senescence and associated secretory phenotype.