Proteins of the Enabled/vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (Ena/VASP) family link signal transduction pathways to actin cytoskeleton dynamics. VASP is substrate of cAMP-dependent, cGMP-dependent and AMP-activated protein kinases that primarily phosphorylate the sites S157, S239 and T278, respectively. Here, we systematically analyzed functions of VASP phosphorylation patterns for actin assembly and subcellular targeting in vivo and compared the phosphorylation effects of Ena/VASP family members. Methods used were the reconstitution of VASP-null cells with `locked' phosphomimetic VASP mutants, actin polymerization of VASP mutants in vitro and in living cells, site-specific kinase-mediated VASP phosphorylation, and analysis of the endogenous protein with phosphorylation-status-specific antibodies. Phosphorylation at S157 influenced VASP localization, but had a minor impact on F-actin assembly. Phosphorylation of the S157-equivalent site in the Ena/VASP family members Mena and EVL had no effect on the ratio of cellular F-actin to G-actin. By contrast, VASP phosphorylation at S239 (and the equivalent site in Mena) or T278 impaired VASP-driven actin filament formation. The data show that VASP functions are precisely regulated by differential phosphorylation and provide new insights into cytoskeletal control by serine/threonine kinase-dependent signaling pathways.

The sentinel and immune functions of microglia require rapid and appropriate reactions to infection and damage. Their Toll-like receptors (TLRs) sense both as threats. However, whether activated microglia mount uniform responses or whether subsets conduct selective tasks is unknown. We demonstrate that murine microglia reorganize their responses to TLR activations postnatally and that this process comes with a maturation of TLR4-organized functions. Although induction of MHCI for antigen presentation remains as a pan-populational feature, synthesis of TNFα becomes restricted to a subset, even within adult central nervous system regions. Response heterogeneity is evident ex vivo, in situ, and in vivo, but is not limited to TNFα production or to TLR-triggered functions. Also, clearance activities for myelin under physiological and pathophysiological conditions, IFNγ-enforced upregulation of MHCII, or challenged inductions of other proinflammatory factors reveal dissimilar microglial contributions. Notably, response heterogeneity is also confirmed in human brain tissue. Our findings suggest that microglia divide by constitutive and inducible capacities. Privileged production of inflammatory mediators assigns a master control to subsets. Sequestration of clearance of endogenous material versus antigen presentation in exclusive compartments can separate potentially interfering functions. Finally, subsets rather than a uniform population of microglia may assemble the reactive phenotypes in responses during infection, injury, and rebuilding, warranting consideration in experimental manipulation and therapeutic strategies.

Previous reports demonstrate that cell migration in the nervous system is associated with stereotypic changes in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i), yet the target of these changes are largely unknown. We examined chemotactic migration/invasion of human gliomas to study how [Ca2+]i regulates cellular movement and to identify downstream targets. Gliomas are primary brain cancers which spread exclusively within the brain, frequently migrating along blood vessels to which they are chemotactically attracted by bradykinin activating G protein-coupled receptors. Using simultaneous Fura-2 Ca2+ imaging and amphotericin B perforated patch-clamp electrophysiology, we find that bradykinin raises [Ca2+]i and induces a biphasic voltage response. This voltage response is mediated by the coordinated activation of Ca2+-dependent, TRAM-34-sensitive KCa3.1 channels, and Ca2+-depdenent, DIDS- and gluconate-sensitive Cl− channels. A significant portion of these Cl− currents can be attributed to Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activation of ClC-3, a voltage-gated Cl−channel/transporter, since pharmacological inhibition of CaMKII or shRNA-mediated knockdown of ClC-3 inhibited Ca2+-activated Cl− currents. Western blots show that KCa3.1 and ClC-3 are expressed in tissue samples obtained from patients diagnosed with Grade IV gliomas. Both KCa3.1 and ClC-3 co-localize to the invading processes of glioma cells. Importantly, inhibition of either channel abrogates bradykinin-induced chemotaxis and reduces tumor expansion in mouse brain slices in situ. These channels should be further explored as future targets for anti-invasive drugs. Furthermore, this data elucidates a novel mechanism placing cation and anion channels downstream of ligand-mediated [Ca2+]i increases, which likely play similar roles in other migratory cells in the nervous system.

Key pointsr Glioma multiforme is a fast expanding and aggressive type of brain tumour that invades healthy brain tissue by migration of single glioma cells along blood vessels.r We show that bradykinin, a neuropeptide of the vasculature, induces the formation of small bleb-like protrusions at the plasma membrane of glioma cells in vitro, which are regulated by intracellular Ca 2+ , resulting in contraction of the cytoskeleton, cytoplasmatic flow and activation of Ca 2+ -dependent K + and Cl − channels.r From our in vitro experiments we conclude that bradykinin facilitates glioma invasion by stimulating an amoeboid phenotype of migration.r In situ experiments confirmed that bradykinin increases the speed of glioma cell migration, which we have been able to block with blebbistatin, an inhibitor of membrane blebbing, and with the B2 receptor agonist Hoe-140.r The study reveals novel mechanisms of bradykinin-induced glioma migration and suggests pharmacological targets to reduce glioma invasion.Abstract The molecular and cellular mechanisms governing cell motility and directed migration in response to the neuropeptide bradykinin are largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that human glioma cells whose migration is guided by bradykinin generate bleb-like protrusions. We found that activation of the B2 receptor leads to a rise in free Ca 2+ from internal stores that activates actomyosin contraction and subsequent cytoplasmic flow into protrusions forming membrane blebs. Furthermore Ca 2+ activates Ca 2+ -dependent K + and Cl − channels, which participate in bleb regulation. Treatment of gliomas with bradykinin in situ increased glioma growth by increasing the speed of cell migration at the periphery of the tumour mass. To test if bleb formation is related to bradykinin-promoted glioma invasion we blocked glioma migration with blebbistatin, a blocker of myosin kinase II, which is necessary for proper bleb retraction. Our findings suggest a pivotal role of bradykinin during glioma invasion by stimulating amoeboid migration of glioma cells.

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