Two nonlinear interfacial elasticity models-interfacial elasticity decreasing linearly and exponentially with area fraction-are developed for the encapsulation of contrast microbubbles. The strain softening ͑decreasing elasticity͒ results from the decreasing association between the constitutive molecules of the encapsulation. The models are used to find the characteristic properties ͑surface tension, interfacial elasticity, interfacial viscosity and nonlinear elasticity parameters͒ for a commercial contrast agent. Properties are found using the ultrasound attenuation measured through a suspension of contrast agent. Dynamics of the resulting models are simulated, compared with other existing models and discussed. Imposing non-negativity on the effective surface tension ͑the encapsulation experiences no net compressive stress͒ shows "compression-only" behavior. The exponential and the quadratic ͑linearly varying elasticity͒ models result in similar behaviors. The validity of the models is investigated by comparing their predictions of the scattered nonlinear response for the contrast agent at higher excitations against experimental measurement. All models predict well the scattered fundamental response. The nonlinear strain softening included in the proposed elastic models of the encapsulation improves their ability to predict subharmonic response. They predict the threshold excitation for the initiation of subharmonic response and its subsequent saturation.

Although liposomes are widely used as carriers of drugs and imaging agents, they suffer from a lack of stability and the slow release of the encapsulated contents at the targeted site. Polymersomes (vesicles of amphiphilic polymers) are considerably more stable compared to liposomes; however, they also demonstrate a slow release for the encapsulated contents, limiting their efficacy as a drug-delivery tool. As a solution, we prepared and characterized echogenic polymersomes which are programmed to release the encapsulated drugs rapidly when incubated with cytosolic concentrations of glutathione. These vesicles encapsulated air bubbles inside and efficiently reflected diagnostic frequency ultrasound. Folate-targeted polymersomes showed an enhanced uptake by breast and pancreatic-cancer cells in a monolayer as well as in three-dimensional spheroid cultures. Polymersomes encapsulated with the anticancer drugs gemcitabine and doxorubicin showed significant cytotoxicity to these cells. With further improvements, these vesicles hold the promise to serve as multifunctional nanocarriers, offering a triggered release as well as diagnostic ultrasound imaging.

Echogenic liposomes (ELIP) are an excellent candidate for concurrent imaging and drug delivery applications. They combine the advantages of liposomes—biocompatibility and ability to encapsulate both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs—with strong reflections of ultrasound. The objective of this study is to perform a detailed in vitro acoustic characterization—including nonlinear scattering that has not been studied before—along with an investigation of the primary mechanism of echogenicity. Both components are critical for developing viable clinical applications of ELIP. Mannitol, a cryoprotectant, added during the preparation of ELIP is commonly believed to be critical in making them echogenic. Accordingly, here ELIP prepared with varying amount of mannitol concentration are investigated for their pressure dependent linear and non-linear scattered responses. The average diameter of these liposomes is measured to be 125–185 nm. But they have a broad size distribution including liposomes with diameters over a micro-meter as observed by TEM and AEM. These larger liposomes are critical for the overall echogenicity. Attenuation through liposomal solution is measured with four different transducers (central frequencies 2.25, 3.5, 5, 10 MHz). Measured attenuation increases linearly with liposome concentration indicating absence of acoustic interactions between liposomes. Due to the broad size distribution, the attenuation shows a flat response without a distinct peak in the range of frequencies (1–12 MHz) investigated. A 15–20 dB enhancement is observed both for the scattered fundamental and the second harmonic responses at 3.5 MHz excitation frequency and 50–800 kPa amplitude. It demonstrates the efficacy of ELIP for fundamental as well as harmonic ultrasound imaging. The scattered response however does not show any distinct subharmonic peak for the acoustic excitation parameters studied. Small amount of mannitol proves critical for echogenicity. However, mannitol variation above 100 mM shows no effect.

Micron- to nanometer-sized ultrasound agents, like encapsulated microbubbles and echogenic liposomes, are being developed for diagnostic imaging and ultrasound mediated drug/gene delivery. This review provides an overview of the current state of the art of the mathematical models of the acoustic behavior of ultrasound contrast microbubbles. We also present a review of the in vitro experimental characterization of the acoustic properties of microbubble based contrast agents undertaken in our laboratory. The hierarchical two-pronged approach of modeling contrast agents we developed is demonstrated for a lipid coated (Sonazoid™) and a polymer shelled (poly D-L-lactic acid) contrast microbubbles. The acoustic and drug release properties of the newly developed echogenic liposomes are discussed for their use as simultaneous imaging and drug/gene delivery agents. Although echogenicity is conclusively demonstrated in experiments, its physical mechanisms remain uncertain. Addressing questions raised here will accelerate further development and eventual clinical approval of these novel technologies.

Although lipid nanoparticles are promising drug delivery vehicles, passive release of encapsulated contents at the target site is often slow. Herein, we report contents release from targeted, polymer coated, echogenic lipid nanoparticles in the cell cytoplasm by redox trigger and simultaneously enhanced by diagnostic frequency ultrasound. The lipid nanoparticles were polymerized on the external leaflet using a disulfide cross-linker. In the presence of cytosolic concentrations of glutathione, the lipid nanoparticles released 76% of encapsulated contents. Plasma concentrations of glutathione failed to release the encapsulated contents. Application of 3 MHz ultrasound for 2 minutes simultaneously with the reducing agent enhanced the release to 96%. Folic acid conjugated, doxorubicin loaded nanoparticles showed enhanced uptake and higher cytotoxicity in cancer cells overexpressing the folate receptor (compared to the control). With further developments, these lipid nanoparticles have the potential to be used as multimodal nanocarriers for simultaneous targeted drug delivery and ultrasound imaging.