NF-B activation is a critical component in the transcriptional response to hypoxia. However, the underlying mechanisms that control its activity under these conditions are unknown. Here we report that under hypoxic conditions, IB kinase (IKK) activity is induced through a calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase 2 (CaMK2)-dependent pathway distinct from that for other common inducers of NF-B. This process still requires IKK and the IKK kinase TAK1, like that for inflammatory inducers of NF-B, but the TAK1-associated proteins TAB1 and TAB2 are not essential. IKK complex activation following hypoxia requires Ubc13 but not the recently identified LUBAC (linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex) ubiquitin conjugation system. In contrast to the action of other NF-B inducers, IKK-mediated phosphorylation of IB␣ does not result in its degradation. We show that this results from IB␣ sumoylation by Sumo-2/3 on critical lysine residues, normally required for K-48-linked polyubiquitination. Furthermore, inhibition of specific Sumo proteases is sufficient to release RelA from IB␣ and activate NF-B target genes. These results define a novel pathway regulating NF-B activation, important to its physiological role in human health and disease.
More than 2,000 genome-wide barley single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were developed by resequencing unigene fragments from eight diverse accessions. The average genome-wide SNP frequency observed in 877 unigenes was 1 SNP per 200 bp. However, SNP frequency was highly variable with the least number of SNP and SNP haplotypes observed within European cultivated germplasm reflecting effects of breeding history on genetic diversity. More than 300 SNP loci were mapped genetically in three experimental mapping populations which allowed the construction of an integrated SNP map incorporating a large number of RFLP, AFLP and SSR markers (1,237 loci in total). The genes used for SNP discovery were selected based on their transcriptional response to a variety of abiotic stresses. A set of known barley abiotic stress QTL was positioned on the linkage map, while the available sequence and gene expression information facilitated the identification of genes potentially associated with these traits. Comparison of the sequenced SNP loci to the rice genome sequence identified several regions of highly conserved gene order providing a framework for marker saturation in barley genomic regions of interest. The integration of genome-wide SNP and expression data with available genetic and phenotypic information will facilitate the identification of gene function in barley and other non-model organisms.
Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1 (HIF-1) is essential for mammalian development and is the principal transcription factor activated by low oxygen tensions. HIF-α subunit quantities and their associated activity are regulated in a post-translational manner, through the concerted action of a class of enzymes called Prolyl Hydroxylases (PHDs) and Factor Inhibiting HIF (FIH) respectively. However, alternative modes of HIF-α regulation such as translation or transcription are under-investigated, and their importance has not been firmly established. Here, we demonstrate that NF-κB regulates the HIF pathway in a significant and evolutionary conserved manner. We demonstrate that NF-κB directly regulates HIF-1β mRNA and protein. In addition, we found that NF-κB–mediated changes in HIF-1β result in modulation of HIF-2α protein. HIF-1β overexpression can rescue HIF-2α protein levels following NF-κB depletion. Significantly, NF-κB regulates HIF-1β (tango) and HIF-α (sima) levels and activity (Hph/fatiga, ImpL3/ldha) in Drosophila, both in normoxia and hypoxia, indicating an evolutionary conserved mode of regulation. These results reveal a novel mechanism of HIF regulation, with impact in the development of novel therapeutic strategies for HIF–related pathologies including ageing, ischemia, and cancer.
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